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ROLE OF ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION IN FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY Forensic psychology is a branch of Psychology and, therefore, it is not possible to separate the developments in forensic psychology from the developments in the broader discipline. As a result many of the psychological assessment techniques, tests and measurements used for the assessment of offenders for forensic purposes have their origins outside the field. Their availability to forensic psychologists is contingent on developments in academic, educational and clinical psychology. The APA Dictionary of Psychology (2007) defines psychological assessment as “the gathering and integration of data in order to make a psychological evaluation, decision, or recommendation”. Multiple tools of assessment are – interview, behavioural observations, tests, and other specialised instruments. A psychological test is a “standardised instrument (that is, a test, inventory, or scale)” used for the purpose of measuring any variety of abilities, aptitudes, or attributes. The practice of forensic psychology relies heavily on psychological research and assessment tools. Forensic psychologists frequently use tools like Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2, Wechsler intelligence test Hare psychopathic checklist version, structured interview of reported symptom, and personality assessment inventories. The forensic assessment differs from traditional testing in some important ways which include purpose, and understanding of who is being served. The major difference is that in mental health evaluation the client is the examinee whereas in forensic evaluation specific legal questions regarding the examinee has to be addressed in order to assist in decision making. Forensic examinee are frequently mandated for an evaluation and often assumed to have significant reasons to be purposefully selective in selfdisclosure so that a much stronger focus must be placed on examiner objectivity and assessment of examinee’s response style. Because of threats of conscious deception or selective self-presentation in forensic evaluations, there is more emphasis on use of multiple sources of data to verify information as well as strong reliance on external sources (i.e. collateral observations, historical records, and reports of others) apart from the formal assessment interactions with the examinee. Forensic psychology assessment and evaluation is more than a mere psychometric evaluation and this evaluation and assessment includes assessment of criminal responsibility, trial competency, assessment of malingering, assessment of mental health and identifying mental disability, neuropsychological assessment and so on.

ASSESSMENT, TESTS AND EVALUATION IN FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY While there are some instruments specifically developed for forensic use, like structured interviews, rating scales, or tests designed for use with a particular legal application in mind like Competence Assessment Instrument for Standing Trial (CAA), Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), and Competence Assessment Instrument for Standing Trial for Defendants with Mental Retardation (CAST/MR), there are also many other instruments which are used in other settings that can be used in forensic field. Quite frequently other instruments, developed for non-forensic purposes, are used in a forensic assessment because of the vast research on the instruments, validity indicators built into some of the instruments, or ability for these tests to contribute to a broad understanding of the person to develop hypotheses related to factors bearing on the legal question(s). Such tests are personality tests, tests of malingering, and cognitive tests including IQ (Intelligence Quotient) measures. Whenever any test is used for forensic evaluation, important factors under consideration are: a) Sufficient research and norms with a population similar to that of the examinee, b) Adequate test development and psychometric properties, and c) Ability to link test results to conclusions regarding the referral question (Heilbrun, 2001). Some of the tests and techniques of evaluation are mentioned herewith: Mental status examination: A mental status examination (MSE) is an assessment of a patient’s level of cognitive (knowledge-related) ability, appearance, emotional mood, and speech and thought patterns at the time of evaluation. It is one part of a full neurologic (nervous system) examination and includes the examiner’s observations about the patient’s attitude and cooperativeness as well as the patient’s answers tospecific questions. The most commonly used test of cognitive functioning per se is the so-called Folstein Mini-Mental Status Examination (MMSE), developed in 1975. The purpose of a mental status examination is to assess the presence and extent of a person’s mental impairment. The cognitive functions that are measured during the MSE include the person’s sense of time, place, and personal identity; memory; speech; general intellectual level; mathematical ability; insight or judgment; and reasoning or problem-solving ability. Complete MSEs are most commonly given to elderly people and to other patients being evaluated for dementia. Dementia is an overall decline in a person’s intellectual function—including difficulties with language, simple calculations, planning or decision-making, and motor (muscular movement) skills as well as loss of memory. The MSE is an important part of the differential diagnosis of dementia and other psychiatric symptoms or disorders. The MSE results may suggest specific areas for further testing or specific types of required tests. A mental status examination can also be given repeatedly to monitor or document changes in a patient’s condition. The main components are: – Appearance, attitude, and behaviour. – Mood and affect. – Speech and language. – Thought process and content. – Perception – Cognition. – Insight and judgment. Interview and cognitive interview: Interview is a face-to-face interaction between the interviewee and the interviewer. The salient features of conducting an effective interview are: • Proper phrasing of interview questions. • Interview schedules (set of questions, statements, pictures or other stimulito evoke responses). • Set of rules or procedures for using the schedules. • Conducting the interview (evoking the responses or events that are to be classified). • Recording the responses – paper-pencil notes, electronic equipments or other devices The cognitive interview aims to enhance recall by subjects who are cooperative but unable to narrate the incident. It is important that the questioning in cognitive interviewing should be compatible with the cognitive abilities of the interviewee. The recall activity should include sensory motor imagery of the events. The probe needs to be of a specific nature to facilitate the flow of information and to ensure that all elements are covered specifically asking about things such as the time at which events took place. The interview here needs to mentally reinstate the incident including the interviewees feelings associated with it, and also focus on the external factors that the interviewees are able to recall. The interviewee is to be encouraged to report the events in a number of different sequences i.e. besides recollecting in chronological order also in reverse order or starting from the middle. Also they can be asked to report events from alternative perspectives like that of another witness, the offender or from other physical location. Retrieval method can be varied and extensive in order to facilitate recall to the maximum. Cognitive testing: The term “cognition” describes those mental processes that allow us to perform day-to-day functions, for example, the ability to pay attention, to remember and to solve problems are all parts of cognition. Cognitive tests are used to measure a person’s cognition. Other terms for cognitive tests include neuropsychological tests, psychometric tests, psychological tests, intelligence tests or neurocognitive tests. Normally, tests are designed to assess a single or only a few aspects of cognition. This means that multiple tests must be administered to get an overall ‘picture’ or ‘map’ of an individual’s cognitive ability. Cognitive tests can be categorised according to the aspect or “domain” of thinking that they aim to assess. The three most commonly cited domains of cognition are attention, memory and executive function. Each of these broad domains encompasses more specific aspects of cognition. For example, at one level memory can be broken down into shortterm and long-term memory, while attention can be broken down into many components including sustained and divided attention. Each cognitive test is designed to measure performance in a limited number of domains of cognition, with additional domains assessed as different complexities which are added to the tasks. For example, attentional abilities are required to concentrate on and complete even the simplest of tasks, whilst preserved memory is additionally needed to perform well on tasks of new learning. Combining these individual tasks into a test battery can provide a more complete profile of a person’s current cognitive state. Throughout the 20th century “paper-and-pencil” cognitive tests were used commonly to measure intelligence, assist with the diagnosis of brain disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease, and measure recovery from brain disease or injury. The first computerised cognitive tests were developed in the 1970s and 1980s. Computerised testing offers accurate recording of reaction time, electronic capture and processing of data (minimising human error) and standardisation of test administration (minimising sources of response bias). Cognitive testing is a method to ascertain the functions of the brain whether it is functioning well or otherwise. This technique has been developed in the field of Neuropsychology, which includes a vast array of tests that measure basic intelligence, learning and memory, sensory perception and sensorymuscle integration, reasoning and problem solving skills, language and communication abilities, and basic academic skills. Cognitive testing is able to identify and to document the level of skill or the degree of impaired functioning of a person. The utility of this technique in the forensic field is in cases involving head injury, toxic exposure, or questions of competency or capacity. To name some of these tests – Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), Folstein Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), and HalsteadReitan Neuropsychological Test Battery. Psychological and behavioural profiling (criminal psychological profiling): Criminal psychological profiling is a very effective tool in the area of crime investigation in general and specially in the cases where a series of heinous crime (rape, murder, arson, and other violent crime) has occurred and it has not been possible to identify the perpetrator. Construction of criminal psychological profile from the scene of crime, interview of the victims and witnesses may be of immense help in narrowing down to the probable suspects in such cases. Criminal profiling is a forensic technique which aims at providing the investigating agencies the specific information regarding the personality traits, behavioural tendencies and demographic variable of an offender based on the characteristics of the crime. The crime scene provides ample clue to the personality traits of the criminal. The criminal personality profile has to be drawn from good examination of crime scene and adequate information supplied to the forensic profiler. Archival information: Many forensic psychologists also make use of archival information while carrying out assessment. Archival information includes educational records, medical records, employment related records, records related to mental health of the individual and so on. These are necessarily third party information and may also include information gathered from significant others in the individuals life, his/ her family members. The archival information and third party information is especially important in order to ensure the accuracy of the forensic assessment. This does not imply that the forensic assessment can be incorrect, rather, the an individuals freedom and wellbeing will depend on this assessment and the overall procedure of forensic assessment-and the report is subject to scrutiny and criticism from range of people including judges, lawyers, police personnel, opposing attorney and so on. Archival information and third party information is also relevant because the likelihood of secondary gain is high in forensic assessment which can also lead to increased likelihood of malingering or deception. the individuals could exaggerate or underemphasise certain symptoms during the assessment for their gains or benefit. And in such situations, archival informationa nd third part information can be helpful.

What are assessment, tests and evaluation in psychology?

Which are the tests and techniques involved?

PERSONALITY TESTING IN FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY Central to the psychological perspective is the idea that almost all causes of criminal behaviour originate in the personality. Personality is defined as the complex set of emotional and behavioural attributes that tend to remain relatively constant as the individual moves from situation to situation. Psychiatry goes a step further by postulating that mental illness and crime both have similar properties (in being responses to the same stressors and each having maladaptive qualities). As long ago as 1870, Henry Maudsly, in his book, Body and Mind, wrote that criminals would go insane if they didn’t engage in crime. This is because their pathological urges must find expression in something. So, it has long been recognised that there is a strong relationship between mental illness and crime (not to say that one is the cause of another). Criminal adaptation to this condition of helplessness occurs because choosing crime over other possible alternatives provides certain psychological advantages or gratifications, which are as follows: • Crime offers the possibility of excitement. • Crime calls for the individual to maximise his faculties and talents which might otherwise lie dormant. • Crime can relieve feelings of inner oppression and stress. • Adopting the criminal role provides an excellent rationalisation for inadequacy. • Deviant behaviour sometimes helps the criminal to form close and relatively nonoppressive relations with other criminals. • Crime can provide pleasure or gratify needs. One of the major purposes of personality test is to assess the match between a person’s personality profile and the required job profile, and thus screen out candidates. It is very likely that as part of job selection process a candidate will have to face a personality test. While the job interview examines the person’s overt behaviour, the personality test ‘aims’ to reach deeper, and expose those areas that the person may not be aware of, thereby providing recruiters with a more comprehensive profile of the candidate’s personality. The information provided by the personality test, coupled with the interview and the other psychometric tests including aptitude tests, helps the evaluator to put the pieces together and get an overall impression of the applicant. Thus, personality testing irrespective of it being used in forensic field or employment field or any other field, is used to gather information to allow psychologists to describe what a person is like, how the person functions or is likely to function with others, whether there is significant psychopathology, extent to which a person is open and transparent in self presentation or guarded or even deceptive and prognosis for improvement with treatment for mental health problems. In forensic field the personality testing is utilised to address questions like risk assessment, mental illness diagnosis and treatment recommendations, competency and capacity, tort cases where emotional distress claims are made, and criminal cases where mental illness factors are being presented. Some of the personality tests are described as follows: The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPA): It is known as the MMPI, and its revised second edition (MMPI-2) are psychological assessment instruments completed by the person being evaluated, and scored and interpreted by the examiner. The clinician evaluates the test taker’s personal characteristics. By analysing the test taker’s patterns of response to the test items, the examiner is able to draw some tentative conclusions about the client’s level of adaptation, behavioural characteristics, and personality traits. The MMPI-2 is preferred to the older MMPI because of its larger and more representative community comparison group (also referred to as the “normative” group). The results of the MMPI-2 allow the test administrator to make inferences about the client’s typical behaviours and way of thinking. The test outcomes help the examiner to determine the test taker’s severity of impairment, outlook on life, approaches to problem solving, typical mood states, likely diagnoses, and potential problems in treatment. The MMPI-2 is used in a wide range of settings for a variety of procedures. In addition, the instrument is often used by expert witnesses in forensic settings as part of an evaluation of a defendant’s mental health, particularly in criminal cases. The MMPI has also been used to evaluate candidates for employment in some fields, and in educational counselling. Personality Assessment Inventory: The Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) provides information relevant for clinical diagnosis, treatment planning and screening for psychopathology. The PAI covers constructs most relevant to a broad-based assessment of mental disorders. This is a 344-item instrument requires 50-60 minutes to administer. Each item is rated on a 4 point scale ranging from false, not at all true, to very true. The PAI consists of 22 non-overlapping full scales covering the constructs most relevant to a broad-based assessment of mental disorders: 4 validity scales, 11 clinical scales, 5 treatment scales, and 2 interpersonal scales. To facilitate interpretation and cover the full range of complex clinical constructs, 10 full scales contain conceptually derived sub-scales. Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO PI-R): The NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) is a highly-regarded assessment of personality. Based on the Five-Factor model, the NEO PI-R measures the interpersonal, motivational, emotional, and attitudinal styles of adults and adolescents. It consists of 240 personality items and 3 validity items, and is available in two forms. Form-S is designed for self-reports and Form-R is written in the third person for observer reports. It is used in the following areas: • In counseling and clinical settings with adults as well as senior high school and college students. • In business and industrial settings. • Psychological research, including studies in sport psychology and recreation. The NEO PI-R was designed to provide a general description of normal personality relevant to clinical, counselling and educational situations. NEO PI- R items and materials were designed to be easily read and understood. The five domains (factors) measured by the NEO PI-R provide a general description of personality, while the facet scales allow more detailed analysis. These five factors and their facet scales include: a) Neuroticism (Anxiety, Hostility, Depression, Self-Consciousness, Impulsiveness, Vulnerability) b) Extraversion (Warmth, Gregariousness, Assertiveness, Activity, Excitement- Seeking, Positive Emotions) c) Openness to Experience (Fantasy, Aesthetics, Feelings, Actions, Ideas, Values) d) Agreeableness (Trust, Modesty, Compliance, Altruism, Straight forwardness, Tender-Mindedness) e) Conscientiousness (Competence, Self-Discipline, Achievement-Striving, Dutifulness, Order, Deliberation Projective Tests: In psychology, a projective test is a type of personality test in which the individual offers responses to ambiguous scenes, words or images. This type of test emerged from the psychoanalytic school of thought, which suggested that people have unconscious thoughts or urges. These projective tests were intended to uncover such unconscious desires that are hidden from conscious awareness. In many projective tests, the participant is shown an ambiguous image and then asked to give the first response that comes to mind. The key to projective tests is the ambiguity of the stimuli. According to the theory behind such tests, clearly defined questions result in answers that are carefully crafted by the conscious mind. By providing the participant with a question or stimulus that is not clear, the underlying and unconscious motivations or attitudes are revealed. These tests are used in forensic setting in order to find out the underlying psychodynamics of a criminal behaviour.

Which are the personality tests?

NATURE AND SCOPE OF CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY The word “criminal” originates from the French word “criminel” meaning criminal, despicable etc. and it directly rises from the Latin word “criminalis” pertaining to crime. The word “psychology” is a combination of two words, viz., ‘psyche’ and ‘logos’, that is, “psyche” means 'mind' and ‘logos’ means ‘the study of’. Thus, ‘psychology’ means the study of the mind and ‘criminal psychology’ means the study of the criminal mind. This study of the mind of the criminals goes beyond studying the committing of a crime by an individual, that is, this study includes also the reactions after the crime, the escape of the person who commits the crime and his/her behaviours in the court etc. Criminal psychology can be described as a branch of applied psychology that focuses on determination of the criminal’s reasons for committing a crime.It can also be described as a study of thoughts, intensions, reactions and wills of a criminal so as to ascertain why the crime was committed. The legal dictionary defines criminal psychology as “a study of will, intention, thoughts, feelings and reactions of criminals and those who engage in criminal behaviour”. Criminal psychology to a greater extent derives its scientific methods and rigours from that anthropology. However, it uses psychological principles, techniques and knowledge in the process of investigation so that both crime and the criminal behaviours are understood relatively in greater depth. Criminal psychology thus helps the police and other investigating agencies by applying psychological principles in understanding a crime, the criminal and to an extent the victim as well as the entire situation that led to the criminal behavior. In the investigation, the focus is more often on the criminal, that is, the offenders. Historically, explanations for crime as to why it occurs and explanations for criminal behaviours can be obtained somewhere in the early 20th century when psychologists offered psychological explanations for criminal behaviours and also speculated about the various causes that could be related to crime and criminal and deviant behaviours. In the beginning criminal psychology was more theoretical in nature though in later years it became more clinical with attempts made to measure the many personality characteristics and the mental capacities of the offenders. As far as 1919, Harry H Goddard, a distinguished psychologist who studied causation of crime, stated that the greatest single cause of delinquency and crime is the low-grade mentality. Similar views had been expressed by William Healy, Charles Goring and Lombroso, who stated that a person is born with criminal traits, and in many cases, defective intelligence was one of the important constitutional factors in the causation of crime. This kind of thinking led to theories such as the ones given below: i) The mental defective, that is, a type of “born criminal”. ii) Feeble-mindedness is a heredity unit character following Mendel’s Law. iii) The feeble-minded characteristically commit crimes in the absence of inhibiting social factors and they lack the capacity to grasp what is right and what is wrong. iv) The feeble-minded cannot foresee the consequences of their actions and thus indulge in crimes getting apprehended and also incarcerated depending on the severity of the crime committed. v) The feeble-minded are suggestible and respond to criminal leadership of brighter individuals. vi) If reared in families and neighbourhoods where they are constantly getting associated with delinquents as examples, feeble minded persons also follow them and take to delinquency.” Many explanations in the form of biological, social and familial, have thus been advanced as contributing to criminal behavior. Until 1930’s or thereabout, experts continued to hold the view that mental deficiency, delinquency and dependency were related phenomena. Psychologists such as Herbert Goddard pointed out repeatedly that most juvenile and adult offenders were “mentally deficient”, which led to the thinking that crime and criminal behavior were due to mental deficiency or intellectual limitation. Persons with such intellectual limitation, were considered morally less capable in adapting themselves to the requirements of the society, and thus tend to make use of primitive methods, such as indulging in crimes, to meet their needs. These explanations and conclusions however did not get the support in the present day context, as psychologists and social scientists found that many social and economic factors, cultural conditions, and socialisation processes do play very important role in crime and criminal behavior. In the 1940’s an important technique to identify criminals emerged, that is, criminal profiling. This was an important development that took place in criminal psychology, and is attributed to Walter C. Langer a well known psychiatrist who was asked to draw up a profile of Adolf Hitler and he did show Hitler as being both a neurotic and a schizophrenic. Following all these developments, came forensic psychology which had its origin in the works of Hugo Munsterberg, followed by McKeen Cattell who studied the psychology of testimony. As of today when one considers the status of criminal psychology, one needs to recognise that crime has become a perpetual element of the society and hence it is a big challenge to prevent crime and criminals in the society. Laws alone cannot deter crimes from occurring. It is therefore necessary to understand all aspects of crime and criminals, which criminal psychology has as its main aim. Some of the important queries that arise in this regard include: “How does a criminal’s mind work? and “what is the cause behind the crime?” “Why do crimes happen”? These queries could be answered by both criminology and criminal psychology, as criminology deals with the various factors in the society and criminal psychology deals with thoughts and behaviours of criminals and puts forward theories related to crime and criminal behavior. As is well known, one of the important challenges for any society is to prevent crimes that destroy the peace of people. It is also well known that Law or punishment alone cannot help prevent or reduce crime in the society. To prevent crime and criminals, it is important to have a thorough knowledge of the causes that lead to crime and criminality. Also it is important to understand how a criminal mind works so that one could try and change the mental framework or take such measures that could offset the consequences of the action by criminal mind. Criminals are of two types, viz., psychopaths and sociopaths, with the former referring to high criminal tendencies and the latter referring to emotionally imbalanced persons. In addition these persons also experience economic, social and family problems. Instead of using lawful and appropriate behaviours to solve the problems, they resort to deviant and criminal behaviours to overcome the problem. To deal with all the concerned issues, knowledge of both criminology and psychology is important. Crime is an act forbidden by law, and requires an action by a human to commit the crime (Actus Reus) and this human (person) concerned must also have an intention to commit the crime (Mens Rea). Such crimes violate the rights of the people and affects the society creating a sense of distrust and fear among people and in the environment. Hence, to understand crime, many aspects have to be considered, for which disciplines such as psychology, sociology, criminology, criminal psychology etc are required which can provide understanding of the criminal behaviours in depth. In this context, taking up criminal psychology, which is, as pointed out earlier, a branch of applied psychology, applies knowledge and principles of psychology to understanding crime and criminal behaviour in terms of why, how and where it takes place and whether such crimes could be prevented, reduced and eliminated from the society. Despite efforts to define criminal psychology, there is until now no specific definition except one , that is, criminal psychology is a branch of applied psychology which is concerned with the collection, examination and presentation of evidence for judicial purposes (Gudjonsson and Haward, 1998). To elaborate on the scope of criminal psychology. It involves evaluation that is carried out with the help of psychological tests and interview if the person accused of a crime (criminal) is capable of standing the trial in a Court of Law, in terms of his mental capacity, understanding and mental state. A criminal psychologists plays an important role in helping the courts, the judges and other law enforcement personnel in arriving at a proper decision regarding the accused such as if he/ she in fact had committed the crime, if so the motive behind the same as well as other details of the person. Criminal psychologists are also involved in the evaluation of the eye witnesses in regard to the credibility, veracity and reliability of their statements about what they witnessed at the crime scene etc. Often action researches are conducted in criminal psychology so as to help the judges and the courts to decide in the most competent and justified manner about a case. Criminal psychology has actuarial scope too, in that the experts in criminal psychology use statistics such as probability of a crime taking place at a certain place or the probability of a criminal striking again or reoffending. Another important scope is one of advisory wherein the criminal psychologist gives suggestions and advice to police personnel involved in investigation. They also help judges to understand the behaviours of an accused or offender and deliver accurate justice.

Role and Functions of a Criminal Psychologist One of the important roles of a criminal psychologist is to study the behaviours and thoughts of criminals. In many ways, criminal psychologist and forensic psychologist perform almost similar roles and thus quite often the two terms are interchangeable. Criminal psychologists study the various causes that lead people to commit crime. They assess criminals and evaluate them in order to determine recidivism, that is whether the person concerned will indulge in crime once again, and also evaluate as to their behaviours and actions after having committed the crime. Criminal psychologists also provide expert testimony in the court. They are involved in criminal profiling, which as mentioned earlier in the section on historical perspective, started in the 1940’s with Langer making the first such profile and that too of Adolf Hitler. Criminal profiling helps the police and the investigators to identify the criminal concerned and apprehend him/ her . Criminal psychologists also take up psychological assessment and counselling people who have committed a crime, so that similar or even newer crimes may be prevented. They also are involved in studying the hackers, internet predators and help computer experts in investigating frauds online. Criminal psychologists interview people, work out in detail an offender’s life history and help the law enforcement in both investigating crime and apprehending the criminal. Prof. Lionel Haward, who is considered to be the father of criminal psychology, categorised the functions into the following:

1. Clinical functions: This involves assessing a person to provide a clinical judgment. For this they use assessment tools, such as personality tests, psychometric tools, interview etc. and inform the police and the court whether the individual is capable to stand trial and whether he/ she suffers from any mental illness that renders him/ her incapable of understanding what is going on in the court proceedings.
2. Experimental functions: These are research functions, involving tests of varied types. Using tests and research materials, the criminal psychologists inform the courts about the credibility and veracity of the statements given by the defendant, victim and the eye witnesses. For example, whether the response of the person involves false memory, whether the eyewitness statements are credible etc.
3. Actuarial functions: Criminal psychologists use statistics to present a case to the court and to the police. For example, they provide the occurrence of probability of an event such as murder, rape or burglary and even may indicate whether the offender will repeat offending after release from jail etc.
4. Advisory function: The criminal psychologist gives advise to the police regarding how to proceed with the investigation, and what are all the best methods to conduct interview with a suspect, and advises the police and the court how an offender will act after committing an offence.
5. Crime analysis: Taking into consideration the victim’s statement and report, as well as inferring from the crime scene, the criminal psychologist analyses the behaviour of the offender in the specific situation and compares these information and the profile of the offender across different recorded similar crimes in the database. This analysis helps the police officers and the investigating team to identify the criminal and also consider the probabilities of the same person committing a crime in a typical geographical location. Criminal psychologists collect reliable and accurate information through interviewing offenders and witnesses as well as the victims. They are skilled in conducting interviews of children, adolescents and adults about the case, using different approach and extract useful information. Criminal psychologist also use the worked out offender profile to determine the most appropriate approach towards solving the crime. The criminal psychologist not only helps the police to apprehend a criminal, but also helps the government and its competent organs to take steps to prevent the offenders from re-committing a crime and getting them rehabilitated back in the society. A criminal psychologist performs many roles and functions including carrying out research , treating the accused or the offender, advising parole boards, intervening clinically to modify the offender’s behaviour, appear in court as expert witness, serve and advise in mental health tribunals and use statistical analysis for offender profiling.

Criminal Psychology and Related Disciplines Let us now discuss about relationship of criminal psychology with other disciplines Criminal psychology and criminology: While criminology studies the causes of crime, criminal psychology studies thoughts, feelings and behaviours of criminals. Also, criminology finds out and presents measures to prevent and control crime in the society based on the study of causes of crime. Criminal psychology on the other hand focusses on what makes a person commit the crime and the typical personality that such persons have and creates a profile of such people so as to even predict the kind of persons would commit a certain crime etc. While criminology is a multidisciplinary subject, and its focus is on theories of crime, factors influencing crime, history of crime, control and prevention of crime etc. the focus of criminal psychology is to interpret psychological tests administered to criminals and others and use theories to explain the criminal behaviour. Criminal psychology and police psychology: As for its relationship to police psychology, criminal psychology applies psychological knowledge to police settings and problems. Criminal psychologists are used for evaluating police applicants, educating and training the police officers, as well as evaluating police personnel’s job tasks and duties. The criminal psychologists are also used to assess whether the police applicants for different police positions are mentally fit and suited for the job assigned to them, etc. Police psychology is practice of psychology in police settings. It is a clinical endeavour , provided by clinical psychologists in assessment and treatment of prisoners, victims and perpetrators if they suffer from any mental illness. Police psychologists provide research consultations. They apply psychological knowledge and principles to the many problems related to police and the many police settings. Police psychology is involved in recruitment and selection of police personnel, their placement as well as training. They evaluate the job tasks and duties of police personnel to ensure efficiency and effectiveness. They also evaluate the psychological fitness of the police applicants. They also screen out applicants who manifest psychopathology and those who are not fit to be in the police employment. Using psychological tests such as personality tests, situational and projective tests, role play etc. they select persons who show ideal police characteristics. Criminal psychology and legal psychology: Psychology applied to the legal system is called legal psychology. It studies varied aspects of the legal system, and uses psychology to understand, evaluate, and question the suspects. It also evaluates jury candidates, (in countries which have the jury system)as well as those who investigate crimes and crime scenes, forensic investigation and other legally-related situations. Legal psychology is part of applied psychology and differentiated from criminal psychology. Both these disciplines differ from each other though both study criminals with different focus. Legal psychology also deal with the improving the legal system through research etc. While legal psychology uses cognitive and social principles in dealing with the legal system, criminal psychology uses psychological principles and techniques to deal with behaviours of individuals especially those of criminals. Legal psychology can be seen in advisory roles, academics and research in legal matters. The legal psychologists are involved in trial consulting, policy and guidance in legal aspects based on empirical research, scientific backups and statistics. Legal psychology is used in testifying eye witnesses. Criminal psychology and investigative psychology: Investigative psychology works with police to assist them in finding out from analysing the crime scene, what type of crime has been committed and what type of criminal is the offender who has committed the crime. It is concerned with all types of criminality dealt with by the police including arson, burglary, murder as well as terrorism. Investigative psychology is a relatively a newer discipline and is a part of applied psychology. It focusses on understanding and conducts profiling of criminals. This branch helps in providing assistance in investigating a crime, and presents important evidences which are presented in a court of law during trial. The main objective of this branch of psychology is to assist in solving crimes. Investigative psychology should not be confused with forensic psychology. It mainly handles criminal profiling, which is a tool that helps the police and other law enforcement personnel to profile the offenders and predict criminal behaviour. Investigative psychology examines and analyses criminal styles and patterns to arrive at the criminal’s thinking and other personality characteristic traits. In addition investigative psychology also handles interviews with the victims of crime, comprehensively analyses the legal and investigative processes and decisions. It uses various aspects of psychology in all areas of both criminal and civil investigations. Criminal psychology and clinical psychology: Clinical psychology deals with assessment, diagnosis and treatment of behavior and emotional problems in a broad spectrum of people. In clinical psychology, persons with mental health problems are tested, the test results are interpreted, diagnosis of the problems are arrived at and plans for treating the problems are worked out in detail and administered to patients to render the persons asymptomatic. Criminal psychology too requires knowledge and training in clinical psychology so as to administer the required tests, interpret the same and arrive at the understanding of the crime that has been committed and also of the individual who has committed the crime. Criminal psychology thus uses clinical psychology and psychological knowledge in dealing with the legal system and issues related to crime and criminals. While a clinical psychologist may be an advocate for his/her clients/patients, a forensic psychologist/criminal psychologist works generally for an attorney, judge and any other legal authority. While forensic psychology and criminal psychology requires a strong clinical psychology knowledge and discipline, clinical psychology does not require background in forensic psychology.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FORENSIC AND CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY In the very first unit of this course, we discussed about forensic psychology. In this section of the unit, we will explain the difference between forensic and criminal psychology. The terms forensic psychology and criminal psychology are often used interchangeably. Though, there are differences between the both, as such criminal psychology can be termed as one of the sub-specialities under forensic psychology (as was mentioned in unit 1). Forensic psychology deals with work related to prisons, victims of crime, witnesses to the crime, and handles counselling of ‘at-risk’ youths. Forensic psychology also assists lawyers and advocates, as well as the law enforcement in regard criminal investigation. Forensic psychologists render an opinion as to whether an individual is competent to stand trial, whether the person is capable and competent to continue with the legal proceedings in the court of law. Thus, forensic psychology mainly focuses in the association between psychology and law. Forensic psychology deals with work related to prisons, victims of crime, witnesses to the crime, and handles counselling of ‘at-risk’ youths.A forensic psychologist does not evaluate criminals. He/ she focusses on cases related to both criminal and civil law. He/ she assists lawyers and advocates, as well as the law enforcement in regard criminal investigation. render an opinion as to whether an individual is competent to stand trial, whether the person is capable and competent to continue with the legal proceedings in the court of law. A forensic psychologist also renders opinion as to whether an individual is competent to stand trial, whether the person is capable and competent to continue with the legal proceedings in the court of law. Criminal psychology uses the psychological expertise in evaluating criminals, whereas forensic psychology does not evaluate criminals. Furthermore, criminal psychology focusses on criminal behavior, whereas forensic psychology focusses on cases related to both criminal and civil law. Thus, the focus of criminal psychology is on crime and criminal behaviour. A criminal psychologist could look in to the history, past experiences of the criminal, in order to ascertain his/ her behaviour. Various factors related to the crime are also analysed. Further, criminal psychologists are also involved in ascertaining the progress of the offender when he/ she has been sentences or after a treatment play is assigned to him/ her. A criminal psychologist uses psychological expertise in evaluating criminals, He/ she may also conduct studies using psychological tools focusing on the causes of criminal behaviour. A criminal psychologist is also involve din devising psychological tests that could tap the criminal traits and tendencies in individuals. He/ she helps in policy decisions regarding prevention of crime in society and may present number of measures, tools and techniques to prevent crime and criminal behaviours Forensic psychologists work with judges and lawyers. They may also serve as legal consultants and could be involve din assessment of competency to stand trial and assessment of the mental health of the criminal. The focus of forensic psychology is also on investigation of crime and processes related to the judiciary. Whereas, a criminal psychologist is mainly involved in the assessment and treatment of the offender. To summarise, the difference between forensic psychology and criminal psychology, forensic psychology involves analysis of the effect that the crime has on the victims and also on the mental status of the offender. Criminal psychology on the other hand involves determination of the reason why the criminal may have committed the crime.

Point out the difference between clinical psychology and forensic psychology.

10 differences

PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES There are basically five major psychological theories that are associated with criminal psychology which deals with the thoughts and behaviours of offenders and criminals. These are psychodynamic theory, cognitive theory, behavioural theory, personality theory and theory of intelligence. These theories explain dynamics underlying crime and criminal behaviours. The psychodynamic theory provides explanation for crime and criminal behavior. Let us see in detail how this theory explains criminality. 5.2.1 Psychodynamic Theory and Criminal Behaviour According to the psychodynamic theory, the early childhood experiences of the individual are responsible for such behaviours. The proponent of this theory was Sigmund Freud and this theory had three basic elements, viz., the Id, the Ego and the Super Ego. While Id was considered the primitive part of the individual’s mental makeup and was also present at birth onwards, the Ego developed in the early years of the individual’s life. The Id functions on pleasure principle, in the sense, it needs immediate gratification of its needs, desires and wishes. Psychodynamic theorists are of the view that the individual’s personality is controlled by unconscious mental processes having their origin in the person’s childhood. Thus, the Id represents the basic biological drives for food, sex and other needs for the individual’s very survival. Ego on the other hand functions on the reality principle, in the sense that it looks for the available sources in the environment that could gratify the Id’s needs. The Super ego is considered the moral arm of the individual’s personality. It is the embodiment of all the ‘rights’ and ‘wrongs’, imbibed by the individual on the basis of do’s and don’ts, dictated by the parents and significant others. The conscience is the sense of guilt when the person does something wrong and the Ego Ideal is the idealistic view of all that which is correct/right. While the Ego tries to gratify all the needs of the Id, it also makes sure that the Super Ego’s requirements are not ignored and the ideal self remains and the person is not overwhelmed by guilt feelings. Thus the Ego strives to strike a balance between the Id’s desires and wishes and the moral requirements of the Super Ego. So long as the Ego is strong and capable, neither the Id nor the Superego becomes dominant or overpowering. According to psychodynamic theory, the Id has been considered responsible for criminal behavior. As mentioned above, Id is concerned with immediate gratification of its needs with no concern for others or what is right and what is wrong. For instance, criminals have no concern for their victims or the society or its laws and regulations. They are generally lonely, interested in getting what they want by forcibly taking away from others their possessions in the process injuring, harming the persons, to such an extent that if situation warrants, they may take away the victim’s life too. Thus, psychodynamic theory explains criminal behavior in terms of a dominant Id, frustration, provocation and childhood experiences such as being neglected, unhappy and miserable, lack of love and nurturing and a very weak super ego and a weak , which is linked to immaturity, and dependency on others. 5.2.2 Cognitive Theory and Criminal Behaviour The next theory to explain criminal behaviour is the cognitive theory. According to this theory, criminal behaviour is explained in terms of the mental processes of the individual. The focus of this theory is to understand how criminals perceive the world around them, and how the individuals solve problems. Cognitive theory has two sub disciplines, viz., a) moral development, and b) information processing. a) Moral development: The focus in moral development is to understand how individuals morally represent the world and how do they reason about that world. In information processing, the focus is to study how people people acquire, retain, and retrieve information. According to this theory, moral development goes through three different levels and six different stages. Level 1 is called pre conventional which contains stages 1 and 2. Level II is called conventional and contains stages 3 and 4. The third level (Level C) is called post conventional and contains stages 5 and 6. In pre conventional level which covers kindergarten to class 5, stage 1 refers to obedience and punishment. Children will have to learn to behave according to acceptable norms as laid by parents, teachers and the school. Obedient behaviour in children at this stage is ensured through punishment. In stage 2, the main characteristics to be developed by children include individualism, instrumentalism and exchange. This stage focusses on the child developing the ‘right’ behaviour, inferring that the child behaves correctly and acts appropriately in his or her own best interests. The Level II is the conventional level. This covers stages 3 and 4. In stage 3, the individual is able to understand and recognise that he/ she is a member of the society and has certain roles to play and are concerned with the approval and disapproval of people in the society. Stage 4 which is contained in this level 2, focusses on the individuals accepting the importance of laws, rules and customs of the society. Such an understanding helps the individual to function properly in the society, obey and recognise the social pillars of the society. In other words, the child or the individual develops into a person who is reliable, who can distinguish between right and wrong, is decent, hardworking, helpful and compassionate towards others, engages in voluntary work and takes up worthy causes to work on for the benefit of the society etc. The person is law abiding and follows all norms. At this point, it is important to remember that no society can function without law and order and by punishing those who violate the law, the society ensures obedience from its people. In other words, people obey law and order due to fear of punishment. According to Kohlberg (1984), most people in any society are at this stage of moral development, wherein morality is driven by external force. Level III is the post conventional level. This contains stages 5 and 6. While stage 5 is referred to as social contract (decisions taken by majority opinion with scope for compromise)and the stage 6 is known as principled conscience (principled justice and human autonomy). For explaining criminality and criminal behaviour, this theory states criminals are significantly lower in their moral judgment development. Thus one explanation for criminal behaviour based on this theory is that those who are low in moral judgement, are more prone to criminal behaviour as compared to those who are high in this characteristic. b) Information processing and criminal behaviour: Under cognitive theory, information processing is an important aspect. According to this, people use their thought processes step by step to make a decision based on the information that they received through their information processing system. For instance, as the individual experiences an event, he/ she gathers all the relevant information from the environment and stores them for retrieval at a later time. Then the person searches for the appropriate response and from amongst the responses, selects the most appropriate one for action. Those persons who use the information correctly and appropriately will avoid criminal or delinquent behaviours. Also those who make reasoned judgements when encounter emotional situations, would most likely avoid criminal or antisocial behaviours. One of the reasons for inappropriate reasoning is the faulty cognitive processes, that is the individual is following what he/ she had learned in childhood. Also such inappropriate reasoning may result from a very long period of exposure to violence and also can be the consequence of rejection. and neglect experienced in childhood. These persons tend to become hypersensitive and often resort to violent behaviours, as a coping mechanism, in addition to becoming alcohol and substance dependent. Thus, cognitive theories explain criminal behaviour as a defect in thought processes, mental development and moral thinking. 5.2.3 Behavioural Theory and Criminal Behaviour The main tenet of this theory is that all behaviours are learned and hence can be unlearned and a new behaviour which is more appropriate and desired can be learned in place of the undesirable behaviour. By the same logic, criminal behaviour or violent behaviours too are learned and so can be unlearned, and in their place new and desirable behaviours can be learned afresh. Behaviourists opine that behaviours are not inherited but are learned during growing up on the basis of their experiences in their environment. Violent behaviours and criminal tendencies are learned by the individuals from their experiences in their environment. For instance, the individual in his/her childhood years if had been observing his father or any other adult or peer being rewarded for violent behaviours, then the individual acquires and internalises the violent behaviour, and uses it to get the desired outcome. This is also termed “modelling”, as stated by Bandura(1977). Thus, according to behavioural theory, criminal behaviour is a learned behaviour. If on individual, during his childhood, had experienced a violent environment or had witnessed time and again violence getting rewarded or if he/ she had acquired criminality as part of socialisation in his community, then one can expect such an individual to indulge in criminal and violent behaviours. 5.2.4 Personality Theory and Criminal Behaviour Every individual thinks, feels and acts. Personality can be described as the individual’s pattern of thinking, feeling and acting (that is, the behaviour of the individual). Basically personality deals with two areas, vizindividual differences and how various parts of the person combine together as a whole. Most definitions of personality focus on the characteristics and patterns of behaviour of an individual. Personality is determined by the interaction of hereditary and environmental factors. Other characteristics of personality include consistency, its impact on individual’s behaviours, and its multiple expressions in thoughts, feelings and close relationships with other people in the environment. Thus, personality can be defined as the characteristic sets of behaviours, cognitions and emotional patterns which evolve from both biological and environmental factors. Thus, personality is relatively stable characteristic of a person that helps behaviour consistent across situations. There are many personality theories, but the one that could explain criminal behaviour appear to be that of Eysenck’s theory of personality. This theory of Eysenck is also known as personality theory of offending. It is also known as the PEN model. Eysenck considered criminal behaviour as the outcome of interactions between extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism. All these three traits can be measured and interpreted. While E refers to the overall the person being sociable, active, lively and sensation seeking etc. N stands for persons being anxious, depressed and react strongly to adverse stimuli. P refers to psychoticism and people getting high scores on this dimension are considered to be relatively more aggressive, antisocial and more egocentric and Eysenck related P to the functioning of the nervous system and according to him/ her all the three E, N and P traits are determined largely by genetics. On the basis of this theory, Eysenck considered criminal behaviour as arising from immature development, selfishness and persons demanding immediate gratification of all the desires and wishes which arise within. In almost all societies many of these behaviours are intervened by socialisation process and the individual is trained and made to learn to postpone his gratification etc. However in the criminals, socialisation process does not have the needed impact and such persons continue to act irresponsibly and remain immature and cannot tolerate frustration arising due to the needs and wishes not getting gratified immediately. These frustrations lead to anger, violence and indulgence in criminality. One of the personality disorders associated with criminality is the Anti Social Personality Disorder, characterised by impulsive behaviour, excitability, lack of remorse, violating other people’s rights, and linked closely to adult criminal. The important factors of personality that influence criminal behaviour are biological risk factors, adverse childhood experiences, negative social environment and substance abuse. As for biological factors, the variances and abnormalities in autonomic arousal, neurobiology and neuroendocrine functioning have been found to increase the probability of a person to commit a crime. In regard to adverse childhood experiences, it has been noted that children who are brought up or raised in bad situations are considered to be at greater risk for indulging in delinquency during childhood and adolescence and criminal behaviour during adulthood, as compared to those who are brought up under favourable and good loving situations. Another factor contributing to criminal behaviour is the social environment such as the crime filled neighbourhood or living in a home with either or both parents involved in criminal activities. Such persons by closely associating with criminality develop personality which is anti social in all aspects and thus indulge in criminal behaviour unmindful unremorseful of the damage and injury they cause to the victim. Furthermore, extreme poverty and struggling for food causes intense stress and such persons are more likely to indulge in crime. Substance abuse is another important problem that leads to criminal behaviour. The substances which are intoxicants bring about an altered state of mind losing all the inhibitions that a normal person would experience when contemplating or indulging in wrongful behaviours. These intoxicants cause physiological and psychological changes affecting adversely the individual’s ability to control himself and also his decision making ability. Furthermore, the person’s craving for the substance such as alcohol or heroin etc. accompanied by extreme discomfort compels him/ her to obtain the drug by any means including criminality. Thus, personality theory is able to explain criminal behaviour in terms of a number of factors such as psychoticism trait, antisocial personality and factors such as biological, physiological and psychological factors including substance abuse, poverty etc. There are different modalities through which criminality has been associated with personality. The question in this regard is whether there is a typical personality associated with criminal behaviour. Many researches in this area have shown contradictory findings, even though the link between personality and antisocial behavior has been fairly well established through research. Many facets of personality or the traits of personality combine together to form personality of an individual. More specifically, personality traits refer to the persisting underlying tendencies in an individual to act in a certain way in particular situations (Farrington and Jolliffe, 2004) These personality traits are combined together into super traits which characterise an individual’s underlying personality. Traits which also contribute to the emotional and experiential spheres of life, define people’s perception of the world and explains how that perception influences the physical and psychological outcomes. As pointed out by Miller and Lynam (2001), many structured models of personality exist, each consisting of a set of traits and super traits. As one considers crime and personality, it is seen that these two are linked in two ways, viz., certain traits or super traits are linked within a structural model of personality and on to antisocial behaviour. Of the structural model, the main ones include the 5-factor model of McCrae and Costa (1990), the PEN model of Eysenck (1977), the 3-factor model of Tellegen (1985) and the Temperament and Character model of Cloninger et al (1993). The 5-factor model has Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to experience, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. Eysenck’s PEN model consists of Psychoticism, Extraversion and Neuroticism. The 3-factor model of Tellegen covers Positive Emotionality, Negative emotionality and Constraints. The fourth model of Cloninger and colleagues contain traits such as novelty seeking, Harm avoidance, Reward dependence, Persistence, Self directedness, Cooperativeness, and Self transcendence. Eysenck’s PEN model hypothesised that a typical criminal would possess high levels of psychoticism, Extraversion and Neuroticism traits. Cloninger on the other hand hypothesised link between anti social personality with high novelty seeking, low harm avoidance, and low reward dependence. Another way by which personality theorists link the personality with criminal behaviour is by asserting that abnormal persons, and persons showing deviant behaviours possess criminal personality. These personality include psychopathic personality trait, sociopathic or antisocial personality trait. Persons with these traits are generally highly self centered, grandiose, callous and lack remorse or empathy for others in addition to being manipulative and superficial. They are impulsive irresponsible, and antisocial in their behaviours. Some may suffer from antisocial personality disorder as classified by DSM-5 of APA, and this personality disorder persons do engage in criminal behaviour or kit may be stated that those who indulge in criminal behaviours, may suffer from this personality disorder. While personality is linked to criminal behaviour, many researches have shown that the environment too plays a significant role in criminality. For instance a person having anti social personality trait may not necessarily indulge in criminal behaviour. However if the environment in which he/ she lives and brought up is conducive to criminality, this individual too would indulge in criminal acts. According to Moffitt (2006), persistence in antisocial behaviour is the result of the interaction between individual traits and environmental reactions to the personal traits of the person concerned. 5.2.5 Theories of Intelligence and Criminal Behaviour Until now we explained criminal behaviour by different psychological theories, such as the psychodynamic theory, cognitive theory, behavioural theory and personality theory. Now we will discuss criminal behaviour from intelligence perspective, that is intelligence theory. Before proceeding, let us define intelligence generally and from psychology point of view. According to the general definition, intelligence is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills. The Merriam Webster dictionary states that Intelligence refers to ‘having or indicating a high or satisfactory degree of intelligence and mental capacity. Intelligence refers to ‘revealing or reflecting good judgment or sound thought, that is skilful. Psychologists define intelligence as the functioning of a number of related faculties and abilities that enable the individual to respond to the different environmental pressures appropriately. It may however be kept in mind that even though there is no single or ‘correct’ definition of intelligence, most definitions have certain common features . For instance, intelligence is a property of an individual which interacts with its various aspects of the individual’s environment. Intelligence is also related to the individual’s ability to succeed in realising an objective or reaching a goal. The ability to adapt oneself to the different objectives and environments. When these are combined, we obtain the definition of ‘intelligence’ as one that measures an individual’s ability to achieve goals with the ability to learn and adapt, to understand and succeed in a wide range of environments. Whether intelligence is in any way related to criminality, has been a topic researched a great deal. The research results over centuries have demonstrated that individuals with low intelligence quotient (IQ) tend to be more likely to engage in criminal behaviour. An important research in this regard is associating school performance with intelligence and criminal behaviour. Studies that have worked on future delinquency and adult criminality have demonstrated that the IQ and poor school performance are linked to each other and the youngsters who fail or drop out of school due to poor performance and low IQ and also having very few career options, indulge in criminality and antisocial behaviours. Thus, it may be mentioned that based on research work relating IQ with criminality and low school performance, those youngsters who drop out of school without even obtaining the minimum level of education, have relatively less opportunity to get any suitable vocation or job and thus tend to indulge in crime. Some studies have also indicated that low verbal intelligence (low verbal IQ) is obtained in those children who are considered poor school performers and who are also low in academic achievement, both of which together lead to their likelihood of indulging in criminal activities. Many theories of intelligence have shown that people with low IQ are likely to be impulsive, break the law, do not have social bonding, struggle at school etc. all of which are related to criminal behaviour. At the same time people with high IQ also indulge in criminal behaviours. In this context there are many examples of genius (high IQ) indulging in crimes as for instance many white collar crimes that go undetected. Such high IQ persons plan meticulously every detail so that their crimes go undetected and even if detected they will be able to escape as no evidence of any kind is left back. Many computer related crimes, money being drained out of someone’s account etc. are thypical crimes committed by persons with high IQ. Oleson (2003) took one group of persons with high IQ and the other control group and compared crime rate between the two groups, for 72 types of crime, that included minor offences as trespassing , copyright violation to serious crimes like arson, kidnapping and fraud. he/ she concluded that the high IQ offenders got away with their crimes and very few convictions for the reported offences by them. Oleson interviewed these offenders, and reported that the exceptionally bright persons appear to be more inclined to commit crimes because they do feel alienated from others because of their high IQ. They suffer from social maladjustment , and experience more isolation, bullying by peers and difficulty in forming attachments and bonding with significant others. All these characteristics make them at risk for committing crimes. Despite the fact they do commit crimes, the rate of crime committed by them is far lower than those committed by persons with low IQ. Oleson’s book, “Criminal Genius- A portrait of High offenders (2016) published by California university press, has brought out the high IQ crimes and the findings has implications for criminal justice and public policy. While there is a relationship between IQ and criminality, the debate continues about the extent or degree of this relationship between lower IQ and crime. One of the criticisms against this relationship is the measurement of IQ itself. It is argued that the IQ tests measures only middle-class knowledge and values rather than innate intelligence. Furthermore those who score low on IQ tests also belong to different cultural backgrounds and suffer from certain structural disadvantages, as a result of which these persons are involved in more criminality. However, there are explanations about IQ being a causal factor in crime related behaviours. However, research results to quite an extent appear to be contradictory with some researches showing no significant relationship between IQ and criminality. Despite all these, one may conclude this section by stating that intelligence theories do indicate IQ being a correlational factor to crime. Low verbal IQ and poor school performance and lack of education etc do lead persons to take to criminal activities to survive and sustain living. However IQ alone is not the deciding factor in criminality. As pointed out in this section there are many biological, psychological and sociological theories which have put forward many factors which all combine together contributing to criminal behaviour.

What are the theories?

The five psychological theories.

Explain these theories.

Explain the five psychological theories in detail.

BIOLOGICAL AND INTEGRATED THEORIES These theories focus on neurobiological factors contributing to criminality. Amongst various factors, three biological factors have been found to be associated with crime related behaviours, and these are psychophysiology, brain and genetics. These are discussed in detail in this section. 5.3.1 Psychophysiology and Criminal Behaviour This refers to the arousal levels within the individuals which can be measured. Heart rate and skin conductance are the two common psychophysiological measures, that explain antisocial and criminal behaviours. While both these measures are related to autonomic nervous system functioning, the skin conductance, reflects sympathetic nervous system functioning whereas heart rate reflects both sympathetic and parasympathetic functioning. Antisocial and criminal behaviours are explained by the functioning of these physiological measures. Blunted functioning of these systems causes antisocial and criminal behaviours. (Choy, et al., 2015; Portnoy and Farrington, 2015, Choy, et al., 2018) Elaborating the blunted physiology explanation, it may be stated that as the physical and mental state is disturbed by the blunted physiology, the individual feels extremely uncomfortable and wants to do something (even indulging in criminal behaviour) that would relieve him/ her from the state of discomfort. In other words, indulging in criminal behaviour, leads to higher arousal level which reduces the state of discomfort. When there is disruption to the autonomic functioning, the individual fails to associate cognitively the physiological responses with his emotional state. This leads to inappropriate behaviours such as antisocial behaviours due to the so called “somatic aphasia” in which the individual cannot identify accurately his own bodily state. Also, blunted autonomic functioning affects adversely the emotional intelligence, thereby increasing the psychopathic traits in the person, which in turn disrupts the development of moral emotions such as shame, guilt and empathy. Such persons would not hesitate indulging in anti social and unlawful activities. While biological factors do contribute to criminality as pointed out above, there are different types of criminals and these different criminals may not share the same kind of blunting of autonomous functioning. Research shows that persons who are high on reactive aggression may manifest hyperactive autonomic functioning (Hubbard et al., 2010). Thus, one may conclude that dysfunctional or blunted autonomic functioning appear to be an important correlate of antisocial and criminal behaviours. 5.3.2 Brain and Criminal Behaviour In this section we will be discussing the functions of the brain and criminal behaviour. Amongst the most important organs of the brain that appear to be associated with criminal behaviours, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, striatum and genetics will be discussed. The neuromoral theory of antisocial behaviour explaining criminality will be taken up followed by an integrated theory of biological, genetic, neurological and psychological aspects. It is well known that research studies linking brain functions to criminality had started somewhere in the late 17th-18th century. Since then there has been no looking back and from associating mental retardation and abnormality in brain function to criminal behaviour, the present day research has taken up typical areas of the brain like the pre frontal cortex, amygdala etc to criminal behaviour. As for the brain, relatively recent research shows that antisocial and criminal behaviours are found in those persons who exhibit reduced brain volumes and impaired functioning in those areas related to executive functions in the brain. (Meijers, Harte, Meynen, & Cuijpers, 2017) Other researchers (for example, Banks et al., 2007) pointed out that impaired functioning of emotional regulation is associated with criminal behaviour. On the other hand researchers working on decision making , pointed out that For example, Coutlee and Huettel, 2012) the executive functions of the brain shows abnormality in decision making in cases of criminal behaviour. Thus, brain has an important role to play in criminal behaviour especially when the area related to executive functioning is adversely affected or is not active or functions inappropriately, thereby impacting negatively the decision making and emotion regulation functions thereby leading to antisocial and criminal behaviours. Most of these criminal behaviours are attributed to the prefrontal cortex which is responsible for the executive functions of the brain such as the decision making, attention, emotion regulation, impulse control and moral aspects of behaviours. This prefrontal cortex in criminals and antisocial persons, is considered to suffer from structural and functional abnormality, affecting the executive functions of the brain (Yuvan and Raz, 2014) Furthermore, findings from research (for example, Taber-Thomas et al., 2014) on prefrontal lesions, categorically showed that these lesions at younger age level, disrupt the moral and social development of the individuals. Relatively more recently, Darby et al., 2018, studied 17 patients who, developed criminal tendencies after they were found to have developed lesions in the prefrontal cortex and other locations in the brain. They concluded that even though brain lesions may be in different locations they were all connected functionally to regions activated by moral decision making, implying there on that disruption of neuromoral network and criminality are associated. However, it may be mentioned here that the prefrontal cortex malfunctioning may differ amongst criminals. For instance, the lesions mentioned above and the malfunctioning etc. are obtained more in the conventional criminals rather than in white collar criminals and other high level operating criminals like the drug lord etc. Hence, it is important to recognise that It is therefore important to acknowledge that there may exist different neurobiological causes in different types of antisocial and criminal behaviours. Hence prefrontal cortex lesions or brain lesions need not necessarily lead to all types of criminal behaviours. As of the present day research, it is more associated with conventional criminality than other modern day white collar, cyber crimes, IT (information technology) crimes, etc. Another important region of the brain associated with criminality is the amygdala. This organ of the brain is involved with emotional processes and is implicated more for negative emotions such as fear etc. Normal functioning of the amygdala is important for fear conditioning and when amygdala is appropriately integrated with prefrontal cortex, it leads to the development of morality in the individual. In cases where there is maldevelopment of amygdala and where stimulus reinforcement learning is not present, this leads to an increased aggressive and antisocial behaviours. It has been pointed out that amygdala is associated with stimulus-reinforcement learning that discourages anti social and criminal behaviours (Sterzer. 2010). Also, it has been stated (Pardini et al., 2014) that if amygdala volume is reduced in adulthood it may lead to aggressive and criminal behaviours, and be also associated with increased risk for future antisocial and psychopathic behaviour. Another organ in the brain in explaining criminality, is the striatum, which is involved in reward and emotional processing. Increased activity in the striatum has been associated with impulsive and antisocial behaviours. According to recent research findings (for example, Geurts, et al., 2016), those individuals who are high on impulsive and antisocial traits, show also higher level of activity in the striatum. Under ‘brain’ abnormalities, neuromoral theory is an important theory that explains criminality. According to this, impaired brain regions, other than PFC, amygdala and striatum overlap regions, such as the frontopolar, medial, and ventral PFC regions, and the anterior cingulate, insula, superior temporal gyrus, etc. which are involved in moral decision making. (Raine, 2019) One implication of the model is that significant impairment to the neuromoral circuit could constitute diminished criminal responsibility. 5.3.3 Genetics and Criminal Behaviour The aspect of hereditary factors associated with criminality has been researched comprehensively though no specific conclusions could be arrived at as many of these factors are impacted and influenced b y social and environmental factors also. For instance, a large number of psychological and psychiatric variables, such as intelligence, personality and mental disorders etc. have been associated with criminal behaviours. Almost all these factors are heritable and 40-60% of these heritable factors contribute to antisocial and criminal behaviours (Raine, 2013). Another important factor to note is the interaction of gene with the environment. The predisposition of indulging in criminality by an individual is determined by the gene. However, the individual may not necessarily become a criminal or indulge in criminal behaviour due to this predisposition. However if the environment is such that, as for instance, residing in a criminal neighbourhood or community or being neglected and maltreated by people, family and society, it would render the individual susceptible to indulge in criminal behaviour. For instance a particular genotype DRD2 (Dopamine genes) when combined with having a criminal father increased the risk for serious delinquency , violent behaviours and being apprehended by the police (Delisi et al., 2009). Thus, the gene-environment interaction contributing to criminal behaviours indicates, how the genotypes influence the sensitivity of the persons to environmental stressors. Thus, one may categorically state that the gene environment interaction is an important factor causing criminal behaviour. Just as biological mechanisms influence environmental factors, so also the environmental factors such as environmental stressors can influence biological factors and their expressions. While biological factors interacting with environmental factors are considered to cause criminal behaviours, quite often the interaction between and amongst different biological factors can also influence criminal behaviour. For instance, as mentioned earlier the pre frontal cortex which regulates the amygdala activity if disrupted or the connectivity between PFC and amygdala is disrupted, it leads to increased antisocial /criminal behaviours. It is therefore important to also consider the working together of the different biological systems in producing criminal behaviours. In addition to the above factors, based on the many theories discussed above, another important factor is the social environment, which is unhealthy or abnormal or criminalistic, may lead to criminality. Studies in this regard (for for example, Tottenham, et al., 2011) have identified early adversity and childhood maltreatment as two important risk factors that may lead to both neurobiolgical and behavioural problems in the individuals. Furthermore, it has been shown that for normative brain development and its function, there is a need for a healthy social environment. This knowledge regarding the association between healthy social environment, brain functioning and criminality helps in changing the social environment in such a manner that the criminal behaviours could be reduced in the individuals and in turn in the society.

OFFENDER TYPOLOGIES2 According to the Webster’s Revised Unabridged Dictionary, offender is one who violates any law, divine or human; a wrongdoer. Crime is the breach of rules or laws for which some governing authority (via mechanisms such as legal systems) can ultimately prescribe a conviction. Individual human societies may each define crime and crimes differently. While every crime violates the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime. For example, breaches of contract and of other civil laws may rank as “offences” or as “infractions”. Modern societies generally regard crimes as offences against the public or the state, distinguished from torts. The latter are offences against private parties that can give rise to a civil cause of action. When informal relationships and sanctions prove insufficient to establish and maintain a desired social order, a government or a state may impose more formalised or stricter systems of social control. With institutional and legal machinery at their disposal, agents of the State can compel populations to conform to codes, and can opt to punish or attempt to reform those who do not conform. A method for classifying offenders or creating offender typologies has to be based upon personal or psychiatric or psychological factors, or situational environmental factors, or a combination of both psychological and situational elements. Besides the above, there are also the personality involvement in every criminal act and the presence of a certain situation or set of circumstances. The issue that should be considered here is that when classifying any offender one must take the history of the individual’s criminal behaviour. A person who commits only a single crime differs in personality make up from the one who repeats a criminal act several times or commits various crimes. The classification must reflect this, and the history of the offender’s antisocial and criminal behaviour will indicate whether the person should be labeled an acute (momentary) or a chronic (habitual) offender. Any classification, be it of plants, animals, or human beings, is to some extent artificial because there will always be individual characteristics or a set of characteristics which can properly be placed in more than one group. In our own attempt at classification, dealing as we often do with emotionally and mentally abnormal offenders, it is frequently difficult to distinguish between a criminal who is neurotic and one who suffers from a character disorder. Yet in spite of the shortcomings inherent in classification, we must attempt to categorise offenders if we are going to be successful in dealing with them. If we can classify them in a rational way, we can diagnose their characteristics, treat them, and predict their future behaviour. However, such classification means that we will have to examine carefully each criminal to be able to find the characteristic and predominant traits that will tell us in which particular category the individual (offender) belongs. In trying to arrive at a system of classification in the field of criminology, we are faced with two problems, classifying the crimes and classifying the criminals. The first classification is a legal one, having its origin in criminal law. The law differentiates between crimes committed against the person (that is, crimes of violence, such as assault, murder, or sexual attacks), those committed against property (burglary or robbery), and crimes against the State. The law thus attempts to classify the criminal according to his/her act. This legally and sociologically coloured method of classification is imperfect and unrealistic in the great majority of cases because an offender may very easily fit into two or all three of the categories. For example, he/ she may kill and commit a burglary, thus committing crimes against person and property. One way of classifying offenders is to divide them according to those who commit crimes which are primarily directed against society (manifest criminals, such as gangsters), and those who commit crimes which primarily express their inner conflicts which are symptomatic or reactive criminals, such as the kleptomaniac, pyromaniac, sex offender, and a certain type of murderer. On the whole, individuals suffering from a neurotic or psychotic condition or from a character disturbance can also commit crimes which are mainly due to their mental condition. However, the drawback to such a classification is that the overwhelming majority of all offenders manifest inner conflicts. 6.2.1 Theories of Classification Regarding Offenders (Offender Typologies) There are many theories of classification of offenders. Let us look at some of the theories. Lombroso expounded a type of classification based upon different criminal types. He divided criminals into the born criminal, the epileptic criminal, the criminal of irresistible passion, the insane and the feeble-minded criminal, including those of border-line mentality and the occasional criminal. The last group, that is the occasional criminal was subdivided into pseudo-criminal, the criminaloid, and the persistent offender of non-abnormal type. Enrico Ferri divided criminals into occasional offenders and habitual offenders. To the first group belonged those whose criminal acts were due to external circumstances and who were driven to commit crimes because of a special passion. To the second group belonged those who were obviously insane or mentally defective, and those mental deviates with inborn criminal tendencies (the so- called psychopaths), and finally the persistent early offenders whose criminal behaviour was caused by environmental elements. Franz von Liszt criticised the classification based upon the motivation of the criminal and instead followed a penological and sociological viewpoint, distinguishing between momentary offenders and corrigible and incorrigible permanent offenders. Although this classification is clear-cut, it neglects to include offenders who are legally insane and is therefore incomplete and inaccurate. In order to avoid such a pitfall, Charles Goring classified criminals into physical, mental, and moral types. An interesting method of classification was proposed by Ernst Kretschmer, who was the first to try to correlate the physical appearance of a person with his/her mental condition. Kretschmer’s constitutional classification is based upon the study of people as psychobiological, or mental-physiological entities. He established three types of personalities the athletic, the asthenicschizothymic-leptosomic, and the pyknic. He stated that there exists a clear biological connection between mental disposition toward schizophrenia and the asthenic-schizothymic-leptosomic and the athletic body builds and also between mental disposition toward a manic-depressive condition and the pyknic body type. His theory was applied to the classification of criminals, noting in particular that offenders who committed serious crimes were of the asthenic-schizothymic- leptosomic body build, while those offenders who committed less serious crimes had a pyknic body build. While Kretschmer’s idea of constitution is limited to a person’s hereditary qualities, Olof Kinberg includes a person’s reactions if they are the result of his/her predisposition or of his/her environment. Kinberg, in collaboration with Sjobring, gives a psychological classification wherein psychobiological correlation is not so predominant as in Kretschmer’s hypothesis. In classification of offenders, it must be noted that can only be valid on a causative or on an etiological basis. To classify according to the crime committed is untenable because the cause or causes of the crime are interrelated with the perpetrator and the person’s environmental situation. Therefore, we can classify an offender only if we see the seriousness of the individuals’ crime in relation to that person’s personality make up. This is as true for the momentary offender as for the habitual one. While classifying the crime one must also consider the frequency of the commission of the crime as it reflects the degree of inclination toward crime and of abnormality present in the offender. Such classification, however, presupposes that criminals be carefully examined, particularly to determine how much of the ego participated in the criminal act. Also, to ascertain the causative factors responsible for criminal activities in the offender, we must examine each person individually and give each case a special consideration. Sometimes an offender manifests signs of a character disturbance and yet still may have anxieties and feelings of guilt. Or, on the surface the offender may show signs indicating a neurosis, while deep within, the individual may have a character deformation, which will put the offender into another group altogether. Also it must be kept in mind that a criminal may appear to be suffering from an anxiety hysteria, which may very well cover up a schizophrenic condition. The latter condition will place the offender in the psychotic classification, and not the neurotic one. Another important point to consider is whether or not a criminal’s aggressive drive, which has become antisocial and which is the product of the offender’s distorted emotional and mental condition. Only a careful examination of, the offender, including his psychobiological development and the person’s own personality reaction, will determine the causative factors responsible for the crime and the offender’s place in the classification system. A system of classification which is methodologically sound may be limited in scope. The purpose of the formation of categories in criminology is to determine how to deal with the offender in a rational way, be it by the court, the district attorney, the prison official, the probation officer, or the psychiatrist. An operational approach is therefore necessary, which must take into consideration the offender’s environmental background, immediate situation, and personality make up. The classification will also have to be based on both sociological and psychological factors, the division of physical and mental diseases into acute and chronic ones and the degree of severity of the disorder. This division can also be used to great advantage in classifying offenders because it connotes at once the degree of criminal involvement of the personality of the perpetrator. Therefore, offenders can be divided into two groups viz., (i) acute or momentary offenders and (ii) chronic or habitual offenders. In designating a criminal as acute or chronic, we must take into consideration the seriousness of the crime or crimes committed, as well as the frequency and time factor. Otherwise, an individual who commits one premeditated murder would be considered simply an acute criminal, while another individual who repeatedly commits harmless or nuisance thefts would be considered a chronic offender. Obviously, this is wrong because the first individual is more dangerous than the second, even though the latter may have a personality defect. While such a personality defect may also be true of the murderer, the person might display definitely some emotional or mental imbalance. Such a person’s personality make up will be involved too much with the person’s act to put him/ her into the category of an acute offender. The offenders could also be classified as given below: • Opportunist: An opportunist offender seeks out his/her victim’s regularly until caught. • Experimenter: This type of offenders abuses as a part of sexual exploitation. • Inadequate and opportunistic: This type of offender is mentally inadequate or has a stunned mental development. • Pedophile: A pedophile has no sexual interest in adults and is sexually attracted to only prepubescent children, under the age of thirteen. • Ephebophile: An ephebophile is sexually attracted to only postpubescent children, adolescents between the ages of fourteen and eighteen. • Pederast: This type of offender engages in anal intercourse with boys under the age of eighteen. • Nonexclusive: This type of offender is married or in a relationship with another adult but clearly desires children sexually and uses every opportunity to find situations where sexual contact with a child can happen. • Exclusive offender: This type of offender is attracted only to children. • Sex offenders: A sex offender is an individual who is either an ephebophile or a paedophile.

I need to know the of offender typologies, as well as various theories and methods of classification.

What theories support it?

JUVENILE DELIQUENCY We need to discuss about juvenile delinquency in the context of offenders as in this case the offender is below a certain age and is not considered as an adult. Thus, the offence committed is to be perceived under different circumstances and is also to be dealt with differently than that of offenders who are adults. Juvenile delinquency refers to the violation of law by a child. The person’s age is under 18 years and is not yet considered an adult.Juvenile delinquency consists of two types of behaviours: Status offence: Status offence includes drinking, smoking, playing truant, running away from home etc. These children behave in such a way they are uncontrollable and are generally treated by the juvenile justice system. Delinquency offence: Delinquent offences include that are considered violent involve murder, rape, armed robbery, aggravated and simple assaults, stalking, menacing, vandalising etc. There are various factors that can could cause delinquency. One such factor is substance abuse. It is not that substance abuse causes delinquency or persons who are identified as delinquents use drugs and intoxicants and mind altering drugs to get excited etc. At the same time, substance abuse as such is highly and positively correlated with delinquency. In fact, those youngsters who take to drug abuse etc., do suffer from many kinds of mental and physical health problems. All these eventually lead to delinquency. Poverty is another major problem that leads to delinquency. Though there is no direct relationship between the two factors, invariably research has indicated that high rates of delinquency are attributed to poverty and poor welfare. Children who engage in delinquent activities have been associated with poor families of origin. An assessment conducted on the causes of female delinquency also indicated that the female delinquency and conflict with the law were mainly lack of income, children school fees not being paid, not having enough money to pay for their clothes or feed the family etc. The youngsters often have too much energy and time on hand and could find it boring and time hanging, and thus he/she may look for some excitement that would satisfy his/her need for excitement and activities. When these are not available, his/her tendency is to indulge in some exciting activity which may end up in delinquency; that is doing something in conflict with the Law or doing something wrong and not getting caught being kind of an adventure to such youngsters. It is important to keep a young person meaningfully occupied and productive, as the person feels he/ she is ”doing something” and ”earning” his living. Even adventure sports would take care of the youngster‘s energy and keep him/her occupied and excited. It has also been observed that youngsters from the villages migrate to the urban areas in search of employment and work that could earn them some money. It is also noticed that they take up jobs that may not be fitting into their qualifications, but far lesser than justified, but yet go on with it as it gets them some money. These also cause frustrations and annoyance in them. Engaging in such jobs makes these youngsters resort to violence and at times to activities that bring them into conflict with the law. Another cause for delinquency could be the low or poor education amongst the youngsters. Lack of education and lack of skills are a few of the leading reasons for these youngsters not getting employment. Thus, as the frustration and disappointment mount along with the loss of a support system due to leaving the family cocoon in the village, make the youngster indulge in activities that are delinquent in nature. In addition to the above factors, dysfunctional family is also another important factor in leading to delinquency. Broken family, constant quarrels between partners in the family, rejection children or being violent towards them, using corporal punishment, not giving adequate care love and affection to children etc all these form part of social disorganisation. Delinquency is attributed in all theses cases to the absence of family, which is essential for children and youths development of personality. The next important factor causing delinquency is identified as ’violence‘. Here violence refers to the children and youth being subjected to violence leading to psychological trauma. Such children and youngsters as they grow up resort to violent behaviours and many other behaviours that bring them into conflict with the law. Thus, children brought up in families and have been subjected to violence and abuse, turn up as delinquent as they grow up. The next factor contributing to delinquency is the peer influence. Many research studies (for example, Smith et al., 2005) have shown a significant relationship in the positive direction between these two factors. Thus association with deviant youths is one of the important reasons for delinquency. In a relatively more recent study, by Yusuf et al (2021), the authors pointed out that there is a negative and significant correlation between these two factors, viz., juvenile delinquency and peer influence. They suggested that every effort should be put in to educate these youths and train them so that they do not make friends with the deviant peers but with the right persons. As a forensic psychologist it is important to focus on these factors as based on this information, suitable intervention strategies could be developed to prevent the children and youth from becoming delinquents. In regard to interventions to help youngsters indulging in activities that conflict with the Law, one of the more effective programmes focused on interpersonal skill development, such as social skill training, anger management, and an important measure of reducing the youngsters ‘exposure to deviant peers. In addition some of the community based interventions such as providing recreational facilities and many after-school programmes including sports, music and professional club activities etc., have been found to be effective in reducing delinquency. Furthermore, delinquency has been also associated with age, gender, prior delinquent activities, family support system, etc. also play a role in causing delinquency. Education, mental health services, juvenile justice and community programmes in combination could help a great deal in reducing delinquency . Juvenile delinquency will be further discussed by us in detail in unit 13 of this course.

FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY AND CRIME INVESTIGATION Before we focus on forensic psychology and crime investigation, let us explain about crime. 6.4.1 Crime Crime can be explained as an act which contradicts the legal code and laws of the land. The study of crimes and deviance have been researched a great deal to find out who are the persons who commit the crimes and what is the motivation or cause for them to commit such crimes. Various types of crime have been discussed as follows: Crimes against persons: Crimes against persons can take any form, as for instance against children, adolescents, youths, adults and old persons. These crimes are also called as Personal crimes. These include murder, rape, robbery and aggravated assaults. Crimes against property: These consist of causing bodily harm to other persons, burglary, looting a person’s home and the belongings thereof, stealing cars, and many electronic and other appliances of great value. Larceny is another crime that comes in this category. Larceny means theft of physical items, whereas theft refers to all variations of stealing property from another person. Many other crimes such as stealing cars, thefts of many articles kept within the car or automobile of any type, are all crime against properties. Arson is another major crime that causes untold harm to public and private property. This is a criminal act in which a person deliberately sets fire to property. It is a wilful act of destroying someone’s property by deliberately burning the same. The individual who commits arson has a fraudulent or criminal intent. Hate crimes: Another category of serious crime is hate crimes. These are against persons or property belonging to a certain religion, caste, community or group against which there is considerable degree of prejudice.Crimes against morality: These are crimes in which there is no victim and no complainant. Examples of such crimes for instance are illegal gambling, prostitution, illegal drug use etc. Morality refers here to social and personal values of people in a society that defines how people should behave, it is a kind of ”code of conduct” for people. When crimes of morality occurs, it is against these moral values and the code of conduct. It includes soliciting or selling or buying sex for profit, and is considered not respectable. White-collar crime: The term was coined in 1939, by Edwin Sutherland, it refers to the full range of frauds committed by businessmen and government officials. White-collar crimes are crimes committed by people of high social status who commit their crimes in the context of their occupation. This includes embezzling (stealing money from one‘s employer), insider trading, tax evasion, and other violations of income tax laws. Organised crimes: In addition to the above, there are also organised crimes, which involves distribution and sale of illegal and goods and services such as the sand mafia etc. These are organised crimes as a particular group exercises control over large illegal enterprises, as for example it can also involve trading in drugs, weapon smuggling, money laundering etc. These are also kind of big industries taking on the corporate form. The owners of these corporates control all the profits, They have under them a large number of employees working for them and also they supply huge amounts of these materials to many businesses who are their clients.

Role of a Forensic Psychologist in Crime Investigation The role a forensic psychologist in crime investigation mainly focuses on detailed explanation of the behaviours of the individual at the time of crime and before, to help the court and the Law to deliver fair justice to the persons concerned. Forensic psychology associates the criminal's behaviour and personality to the crime investigation and thereby an explanation and interpretation of the individual's behaviour observed at the crime scene. The appropriate and adequate as well as evidence based interpretation is very important for a successful investigation. Forensic psychologist collects five types of behavioural characteristics including

1. The amount of planning that went into committing the crime.
2. The degree of control used by the offender.
3. The escalation of emotion at the scene.
4. The risk level of both offender and the victim.
5. Whether it is organised or unorganised crime scene. All these five characteristics become part of the evidence. In crime investigation, the forensic psychologist carries out profiling of the criminals called as criminal profiling. They also interview suspects, victims and their relatives etc. They also serve as expert witnesses in the court regarding the cases. Forensic psychologists also help in police identification parade where the victim is required to identify from amongst a number of persons the one who had committed the offence. This kind of identification is based on the memory of the individual who is asked to identify. Many times, the person's ability to call may be contaminated because of his/her own biases, emotional lability, and stress factors arising due to the trauma experienced during the crime. Also, other factors that can affect the memory are the poor light conditions that affect the visibility, when the crime was committed as well as the time gap between the time the entire crime was committed and the time when the parade identification was scheduled. Since the identification of the culprit is important evidence, every effort to address the above-mentioned factors is important and here comes the role of forensic psychologists who can state on the basis of their scientific understanding of memory etc whether the person who is called to identify can really do justice, and how far the identification is devoid of any false recall. Forensic psychologists are called upon by both criminal and civil courts, to ascertain if the defendant is mentally capable of standing trial in the courts. The forensic psychologist evaluates the defendant and presents his/her opinion about the individual's ability to understand the proceedings happening in the court, and whether the accused can understand and direct his lawyer as to how he/ she is not guilty etc. The forensic psychologist thus evaluates and assesses the cognitive, emotional and psychological competence of the person standing trial in the court. They integrate mental health evidence and practices with the court proceedings. They help to determine the causes underlying the crime which goes a long way in the accused being liable for the commission of the crime. Thus, the expert testimony by forensic psychologists helps to overcome false convictions, inappropriate sentencing and many other wrong judgements, including wrongful acquittals. Forensic psychology thus focuses on behaviours, cognition, emotion, intelligence and other important aspects of the accused, witness and relevant others, are also involved in rehabilitating the individual, both victim and the accused (when released from the prison). Forensic psychologists not only provide a diagnosis of a crime, why, what and how as well as the motive underlying the commission of a crime, also helps in treating the accused for his wrong behaviours, setting right his thinking processes and making him/ her more responsible and capable of contributing to the society by controlling his behaviours and criminal tendencies. Thus, forensic psychologists are very closely associated with a criminal investigation, in addition to many contributions that they make during criminal or civil trials and later on contribute to the delivery of fair justice by providing behavioural and psychological perspectives to the individual perpetrator standing as accused in the courts and provides treatment and rehabilitation programmes for the convicts within the prison and when released on bail or on parole or from prison after the sentence is completed

Criminal Profiling Criminal profiling is also known as offender profiling and is used by police and law enforcement agencies to identify likely suspects during their investigation. Once they have the profile of a certain type of criminal, then shortlisting criminals and looking for a certain group makes it easier to identify the culprit. This profiling is an investigative strategy used by law enforcement agencies to identify likely suspects Forensic psychologists work out a psychological profile of the offender based on various aspects like

• The state of the crime scene.
• Behaviours of the criminals in the present situation.
• Behaviours of criminals in different situations.
• Personality traits of different criminals.
• Whether the person is organised, disorganised or a mix of organised and disorganised personality features.
• Synopsis of the crime and description of the crime scene.
• The weather that prevailed at the time when the crime was committed
• Political and social environment.
• Autopsy report, photos and sketches of the crime scene.
• Background information of the victim.
• Crime assessment which consists of reconstruction of the sequence of events, behaviours of the offender and victim, classification of the crime, strategies used by the victim, stages in committing the crime, motivation for committing the crime, and crime scene dynamics. Thus, based on the above a criminal profile is created that can help in understanding the type of person who committed the crime, and the person's behaviour in relation to the crime. Further, once apprehended and the accused offender admits guilt, forensic psychologist conducts a detailed interview to check the validity of the profiling made by him/ her . Other questions for which forensic psychologists try to find answer include whether the crime was planned; was the crime committed on an impulse; and was there any strong emotional circumstances that led to committing the crime etc.Yet another question deals with the gender and approximate age of the offender, his residence or living area and its proximity to the crime scene, etc. This information is extremely useful to target the culprit. Also in order to collect the required information the forensic psychologist conducts a thorough interview of not only the offender but also the witnesses, relatives, friends and acquaintances who could or are even remotely connected with the crime. Each of these persons requires a different approach and interviewing style. To take an example, if a child is a witness to a crime, interviewing the child is to be very different using other appropriate techniques like drawing, painting, play etc. On the same line, if the offender decides to confess, instead of the police, the forensic psychologist could get the most relevant and factual information using special skills in which they have been trained. The forensic psychologist uses the offender's profile that he/ she has created, to determine the typical approach they have to use so that correct information and facts are obtained.

Psychological Autopsy A psychological autopsy is a very valuable tool in a criminal investigation. Through this, the forensic psychologist is able to collect all the available information regarding the victim of the crime (the deceased) through interviews of family members, relatives, friends as well as health personnel. In addition, information is collected from available health care and psychiatric records, other documents, and forensic examination. Thus, a psychological autopsy integrates and synthesises all the information obtained from multiple sources, informants and records. The psychological autopsy which is a standard approach gathers information through a semi-structured interview of key informants. Whenever there is a discrepancy, they reinterview the informant, hold a case conference and use the 'best estimate' procedures. The report of the psychological autopsy provides the following:

1. In-depth information is presented about the cause of death based on interviews with key persons, the medical autopsy report, medical records, and relevant documents. The sources from where the information was acquired have to be clearly documented for evaluation and its potential validity.
2. The forensic psychologist and other mental health professionals provide systematic details about the important psychological stages in the person’s thought processes including the personality trait, psychopathic/sociopathic personality, motivation to commit the crime etc.
3. Since the forensic psychologist is presenting his/her interpretation of the facts, which are again limited, makes the forensic psychology evidences somewhat not very valid, as in any case the final judgement as to the mode of death will be based upon a review of all the know facts and circumstances, including the magisterial report, forensic medical report, police reports, crime scene analyst reports, and the psychological reconstruction. While in a physical autopsy, the causes for death are explained, similarly, in psychological autopsy, an attempt is made to explain why a person has taken their life. This is done as mentioned earlier, through analysing medical records, interviewing friends and family, and conducting research into a person's state of mind prior to their death. There are many reasons to ordering psychological autopsy. Most importantly, it is carried out in suicide cases, to decide without any doubt that the person had committed suicide. It is a useful tool to gather information for understanding why a person committed suicide, and then onwards to work out strategies to prevent suicides. The indications for psychological autopsy are as follows:

• To decide whether a case is suicidal or accident or murder.
• Drug ingested deaths also raises doubts about accost all or suicidal
• Fire arm related deaths require an indepth analysis of the history of the individual, the obsession of the person to on weapons, carelessness in handling weapons, etc.
• In the cases of suicides by drowning, whether it was suicide or homicide is determined by not only evidence left by the victim, but also by psychological autopsy. Two main investigations are carried out using psychological autopsy, and these include the psychosocial factors contributing to death and determining the manner of death. Towards the completion of the investigations, the forensic psychologist collects information by collecting details of the medical and case history of events surrounding the case concerned, the details of the scene of crime and the quality of the autopsy. In this, the forensic pathologist and the doctor conducting the postmortem, provide the results of the medico-legal autopsy and indicate the cause of death, the manner in which the death occurred, the circumstance of death etc. The forensic pathologist works almost like a detective and probes and investigates the truth behind the death. The medical doctor or the medical examiner certifies the many aspects related to death. This certification by the doctor or the medical examiner who conducted the post mortem, is of great importance for legal, social, medical and research implications. The forensic team that investigates the death in detail often consists of magistrate, medical examiner/doctor conducting the post mortem, forensic psychologist, psychiatrist, a psychiatric social worker, police and the law enforcement official dealing with the crime. The psychological autopsy functions as an important investigative tool which covers many factors that have contributed to death. The forensic psychologist uses his/her skills and training as well as typical techniques to assess the deceased person's behaviour, thoughts, feelings and the relationships he/ she had it's different people both nears and dears and friends and other persons with whom he/ she had interacted and who could have some information to provide in regard to the death that occurred. They conduct interviews with the relevant people identified as informants, in addition to the deceased person's doctor, physician and other relevant persons to prepare th psychological autopsy report. Such a psychological autopsy report becomes essential and important mainly because the medical examiner, or the forensic scientists and forensic pathologists do not have the skill or have had any training in the behavioural aspects of humans. These behavioural aspects provide a very important contribution to understanding of both the perpetrator of the crime and the victims in terms of their motivation, state of mind, impulsivity, the kind of relationship negative or positive and the mental health as well as other psychological factors that gives clue to determining how far the accused is responsible for the crime and what factors within the victim had also led to the crime. Thus, it may be stated that psychological autopsy is conducted to obtain information in regard to the many behavioural and psychological factors within the perpetrator as well as the victim which all could have led to the concerned crime. Whatever motivated the perpetrator to commit the crime, what were the typical characteristic traits or behaviours in the victim that led to choosing him/ her as a target for attack. The major criticism against psychological autopsy focuses on its limitations. There is no standard measurement tool to ascertain if the interviewee is telling the truth and whether his statements are valid and reliable. The records related to the accused and the victim may be so many years ago that it may not be very relevant at the time the crime was committed. In interview, many of the individual's recollections may not be totally accurate as over time, many things in the memory may have been erased and many associated but irrelevant things would have been added. All these would vitiate the psychological autopsy report. Another drawback is the information related to the mental state and behaviour of the victim. Quite often those who are interviewed may give distorted information about the victim's mental state, and based on that the report presents the mental status of the victim which may not be the correct one. Many times, during the interview by the forensic psychologist, the interview will try to recall certain incidents and events that had occurs in the past having some bearing on the crime. However many of these recalls may not be accurate and the respondents may have the tendency to recall more of positive than negative aspects thus rendering the psychological autopsy unreliable as it may thus contain biased information based on false and biased information also, a researchers and practitioners have pointed out over the years, serious methodological problems in the psychological autopsy reports. Most psychological autopsies are conducted more on medical model paradigm and the report relates the crime with mental disorder (Pouliot and D Leo, 2006). This is one type of wrong association as mental disorder may not necessarily caused the person to indulge in the offence. For instance in the case of suicide, mental disorder may not be the real cause but various other factors may be linked to suicide. By using the medical paradigm the tendency will be to associate the offence with mental disorder. Another drawback is that forensic psychologists do not use standardised measuring instrument to assess the mental disorder and its severity. They invariably use non standardised and ill defined instruments for diagnostic purposes. Often they use unstandardised semi structured questionnaire which leaves the results open to interviewer bias. Another limitation is related to the informants. Very often the informants are highly emotional and thus their response will be tinged with exaggeration of the negatives. Since there is no systematic control in the selection of informants, their attitudes towards crime, murder or suicide, as well as their emotion-laden responses render the results biased, and thus the psychological autopsy report becomes un-reliable. One other important problem in regard to the psychological autopsy is related to the interviewers themselves. Before interview, whether the interviewers were well trained , whether they were alerted to look for their own bias and errors that may creep into the interviewing situation. This adds to the report being again not very reliable and valid. The next problem in psychological autopsy is concerned with the time lapse between the occurrence of the offence and the interview. If there is a very long gap, the memory of the event gets considerably changed with addition of materials or deletion of materials from the factual narrative. This would affect the report adversely. Despite the many adverse aspects and many limitations that are considered a part of psychological autopsy, yet this is an invaluable tool in criminal investigations, diagnosis and finding out the causative factors leading to the offence. Though physical evidences are maximally taken to explain an offence, in quite a few cases, psychological autopsy provides such information on the behaviour, thought patterns, cognitive abilities, emotions and motivation to commit a crime etc., that these psychological aspects over rule the physical evidence and the judgement given becomes quite different from what is thought of based on physical evidence. Thus, psychological autopsy in both criminal and civil cases presents the mental state of the individual prior to death. In countries such as the USA psychological autopsies are permitted as evidence in the courts, criminal or civil. Psychological autopsy is a very useful investigative tool in criminal investigations. It examines all factors that are around the crime concerned and also includes the mental health and well being of the witnesses being questioned regarding the crime that took place. In India, psychological autopsy is used more as a research instrument to understand the various factors in the case of suicidal deaths and the causes that led to suicide. It works out the association and dynamic interaction between mental health issues and risk factors associated with suicidal deaths. It throws light on the various stressful life events in the individual's' life ultimately culminating in suicide. Psychological autopsy is a very sensitive and important tool to examine the state of mind of the people close to the deceased in order to reconstruct events leading up to the death.

POLICE PERSONALITY The two important personality traits of police officers are social responsibility and conscientiousness There is also another term "policeman's working personality" which explains how a police officer has to cope with risky tasks, dangerous assignments, risk of being isolated and the risk of being suspected etc. They wield considerable authority and hence can take action that may be harsh and cruel too. This personality also includes the traditional values and patterns of behaviours expected of them and for which they are trained also. Thus, the police personality is the main component in the culture of police officers. More than anything, their main duty and goal is to save and preserve life of people. To attain this goal the officer takes into consideration the behaviour of the suspect and the criminal history of violence. They make use of their authority and even take drastic action like shooting etc. if the situation demands. It may be mentioned here that the tasks and duties of the police officers involve high levels of stress and highly risky situations. They need to be extremely alert and take swift action and on the spot without delay which may even result in heavy criticisms of the officers. These in turn may make them experience personal distress, mood change and may affect adversely their psychological functioning. Police careers are such that at all levels of hierarchy in the police departments, many tend to develop such traits as cynicism, aloofness, suspiciousness, alienation etc. in order to cope with the many risky and dangerous aspects of their career. They also suffer a great deal from many prejudices. They could have prejudice towards a certain group of people and as a result, they perceive this group as threatening, aggressive, violent and so on, and accordingly the police take action more on these assumptions than verifying the cause or gathering evidence regarding the crime and bring to book the real culprit.

POLICE STRESS Before we go on to discuss police stress, let us look at some of the definitions of stress. Schafer (1998, page 6) defined stress as “arousal of mind and body in response to demands made on them”. Lazarus and Folkman (1984, page 19) define stress as “a particular relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his/ her resources and endangering his/ her wellbeing”. Truxillo et al. (2016, page 440) defined stress as “the body’s reaction to a change that requires a physical, mental or emotional adjustment or response”. This definition has further elaborated the response as being physical, mental or emotional in nature. The above definitions mainly highlight, how stress can have an impact on the resources of an individual, which in turn can have a negative impact on his/ her wellbeing. To discuss about police stress, it is well known that in their daily work and duty that the police are expected to accomplish , they face considerable problems, challenges and stresses of varied types. These in turn affect them adversely causing both mental and physical health problems. Some of the major problems and difficulties they face in their occupation include the possibility of facing severe injuries that may handicap them for life or most of their life, fear of being killed while on duty, lack of recognition, poor equipments and gadgets, etc. More than these some also have to deal with terrorists, such as anti terrorist operations, drug lords and gangs, poor working conditions and heavy load of work, etc. (Kavya and Chandrashekhar, 2016) Some may even face the situation of shooting some one in the line of duty and may feel guilty, and some others have to face the wrath of the public with regard to certain actions they have taken, many do not They may not get promotions on time and may have to obey persons at high or carry out certain orders even though they may consider them as incorrect. These add to enormous stress and often a certain degree of helplessness. Many suffer from lack of job satisfaction, low morale and frustration. Many do not find time to spend with their family and in quite a few cases due to the odd hours they keep and being called for duty at all odd hours, bring about strained relationship with their family members. Such stresses and lifestyle of the police personnel contribute to high rate of smoking and alcohol ingestion (Tharkar et al., 2008). Some research (for example, Kavya and Chandrashekhar, 2016) have shown that this occupational group die much earlier than all other groups because of the heavy stress they are subjected to. They suffer from high blood pressure, insomnia, heart problems and even PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder). In one of the research studies on constables, occupational health problems were reported such as inadequate wages and facilities, duty at times continuously for 24 hours, having no time fo their families, negative interaction with other police staff, suffer f ok negative public image etc. All these contribute to psychological stresses and burn out (Srinivasan and Ilango, 2013). It may be kept in mind that such occupational stress experienced by the Police Psychology police personnel would more often lead to impaired psychological and physical functioning. Furthermore, lack of encouragement, lack of recognition on the job, lack of holidays, lack of opportunities for promotion, inadequate salary, and delayed promotion etc also cause considerable stress on the police personnel especially at constable levels. Police personnel being a very important occupational group, it is very essential and urgent that their physical and mental health are given due consideration and every effort is put in to reduce the stressors, which includes stress management training for the police personnel, stress relief camps and yoga sessions. In addition, many other measures such as educating police regarding health issues, promoting health related activities in the workplace, getting specialists to address the police personnel, conducting s minuses etc on positive health and how to remain physically and mentally healthy are all some of the innovative measures introduced to reduce and relieve the stress amongst these personnel. Another related aspect is the satisfaction and general positive feelings that are essential to reduce stress. Towards achieving this, the police needs to receive adequate and timely remuneration, decrease in number of hours of working so that they could spend relatively more time with their family. They also need enough opportunities to pursue higher education and develop higher level skills etc. which all will contribute to satisfaction with life to quite an extent.

POLICE AND HUMAN RELATIONS Historically, it is known that every country has been using instrument or agency in the form of Police for enforcing law and order and protect its citizens. Police as perceived by the people in any society evokes awe, fear, feelings of protection and security and so on. Police which has existed in every society, is expected to behave in a particular way and the people in the society expects typical pattern of action from this personnel. The kind of image people have of the police is important for the trust and confidence people have on this group. Only a favourable image of police would make people also have trust in them thereby will be ready to cooperate and give their best to assist the police in maintaining law and order. However in India, police are not very favourably considered and apart from cooperating with them, they are subjected to heavy criticism. The perception of police and policing in India has been very comprehensively brought out in a report in the year 2018. This report is based on a very comprehensive survey of 22 states of India published by the Center for the Study of Developing Societies in collaboration with Common Cause. It is a study of performance of police and perception of people regarding the performance of police. A society expects the police to be responsible and take care of the security and safety needs of the society in addition to control crime. While doing so it is expected that they would also treat people with dignity and respect. The survey found very few contact or interact with police and amongst these there are more men than women who contact the police, the reason being the lack of gender friendly atmosphere. As for registering of cases in the police station, people generally opine that many cases do not get registered and as a result they do not get justice. Also they perceive the reporting and recording of crime to be arbitrary. People fear the police and thus victims do not approach the police to resolve their problem or even report a crime etc. Another important aspect is that in India, the general opinion of the public about police is that they are unapproachable, biased, non- responsive and corrupt. This kind of negative perception about the police make people hesitate and deter them from approaching police even when in dire need. People's opinion and perception of police will be more favourable if only the police is ensuring their safety, reducing the crime rate and keeping people safe from attacks, assault, violence, crime etc. It has been noted that during riots, disturbances and similar fear arousing situations, the presence of police patrolling gives a sense of security and safety for people. The very presence of police patrolling in a certain locality, creates feelings of safety and the general feeling that the criminals will not dare act in such conditions. Another factor is perception of police depends also on the satisfaction the people have in their functioning. If they are satisfied, their perception of police will also be positive. Going by that they also will trust them. However, police extracting money, being corrupt etc. have led to reduced o lack of trust amongst people in regard to the police. Thus, the perception of police being helpful, capable of protecting society, trustworthy etc. depend a lot on the social identity, experience interacting with police and perceptions of police in terms of their attitude and functioning. While perception of the police by people in the community depends on a large number of factors, it is important to understand how people also perceive the discriminatory attitude of the police. One of the main complaints against the police is that they do not cater to the interests of common citizens and also show no accountability for whatever they are doing. Hence there is distrust and fear of the police in India (Human Rights Watch 2009). While fear of the police exists, quite a few prefer to approach the police when need arises, but at the same time they may not expect the police officers to give them a fair and just treatment. In addition to the above, it is also important to note that people in general find the police discriminating a great deal while dealing with crime, criminals and the public. The perception of people in regard to this is that the police 119 discriminates between rich and poor, as well as in terms of caste, gender and religion. Discrimination by the police can be based on class, caste, religion, gender, educational level, occupation of the person, socioeconomic status etc. In addition, people fear the police and their excesses in treatment, a great deal and this is all the more so in the case of minority groups in India. Where people are perceiving discrimination, there the fear of police is also high. Higher the fear more negative is the public perception of the police. Some of the factors that can be considered contributing to typical perception of the police include public accountability of police officers, crime reporting by the police and ensuring women and children's safety . By themselves also, police face considerable problems in day to day work life which affect their efficient performance adversely. These include apathy towards police by the citizens, financial problems and poorly trained in skills requiring police work, and so on. Police vehicles are fewer in number and hence face problems reaching crime spot on time, and the police do not have efficient network connections as a result they nether receive information on time nor are they able to direct and guide policemen at the spot etc. where a crime had taken place. Despite these deficiencies, police work to their best ability but face quite a lot of stress and frustrations. Often people in the community are apathetic towards police and their functioning. Secondly police may also feel that they need greater and continuous training so as to update their skills in many areas related to crime investigation. Though many training programmes are conducted for the police personnel, these are not adequate and do not train the personnel in areas that are most essential. Further, the physical conditions in which police personnel are working is far from satisfactory. For instance, police stations may not have decent buildings and other infrastructure and these in turn hamper their efficiency greatly. Police also require good vehicles that could reach them to the crime spots on time. Most police stations do not have adequate number of vehicles and also suffer from outdated equipments and outdated technology. They may also not have access to good forensic laboratories. Because of the above mentioned problems, the efficient functioning of police get adversely affected. Police is a public institution and play a significant role in the democratic governance of the country. Thus, the focus needs to be not only on developing a positive perception of police amongst the general public but also on improving the relationship between the police and the community as a whole. In the United States of America, during President Obama's regime, a task force was appointed to identify best practices of policing and required the force to make recommendations to improve the training of police personnel , reduce police bias and work out strategies that could develop the trust of the community on the police. Some of the recommendations focused on the training and education of police officers, reducing their bias and instilling in them compassionate attitude towards the public in general and specifically towards the coloured persons. The recommendation also pointed out the need for training the police officers in crisis intervention methods and techniques along with installing in them cultural sensitivity. In each of these areas and focus, police psychologists can play very significant role and contribute to improving police-community relationship. Some of the major aspects regarding this relationship are for instance

1. Research in regard to the bias of the police towards a certain group has to be carried out particularly focussing on the brutal force used by the police, such as shooting by the police, systemic viol nice etc.
2. Ideally there should be participation by the members of the community in research that focus on finding out the causes leading to death or trauma of a particular group, and where methods to improve policecommunity relations are topics of research.
3. One of the important aspects to be included in the training of police officers is to not only make them aware but instil in them what type of powerful impact that violence has on the individual, community and the society.
4. They should be trained to make use of psychological science to improve culturally competence community policing.
5. Funding should be made available for training in both behavioural and mental health treatment, so that police personnel become familiar with these issues and take due action when necessary. To conclude this section, the police in India face very difficult and complex issues. Their duties are clearly defined but they are unable to do their duty to the public's satisfaction as they come under numerous pressures. The training and education of the police need to be improved upon and they have to be sensitised to many problems in the society as well as to the needs of people in general andirons. Police personnel work under restricted conditions, poor environment, poor working condition., long hours of duty without brake. All these factors demotivate them and thus police in India is not as efficient and as effective as it is expected to be.

POLICE AND SPECIAL POPULATION Special population refers to individuals with disabilities, individuals from economically disadvantaged families, including low-income youth and adults, persons involved in domestic violence (offenders and victims), persons with mental illness; juveniles; immigrants, etc. The definition of special population could vary across the different states in India. While police have multifarious tasks to accomplish, they have a special Police Psychology responsibility towards people who fall in the category of 'special population'. These persons are handicapped in one way or the other, and their expectations and demands from the police are different from that of the general population. and they create unique situation for the police to handle. (Grothoff, 2014). Special population also include persons with mental retardation, mentally ill persons, female inmates, mature elderly inmates, minorities and foreign inmates, youthful offenders, gangs, inmates in isolation, etc. Here we can also discuss about special offenders. Special offenders can also be criminal offenders with mental health problems, there can also be juvenile offenders, or sex offenders. As for police handling these special population, the first step is to recognise and deal with them in terms of the disability they suffer from. The police officer first finds out from the victim or the offender concerned if they suffer from any disability. It is not considered rude or offensive if the police officer asks such a question so as to help them with some special facilities. This will be appreciated by the victim rather than considering the same as offence. The next step is to interview as many persons as possible who are in one way or the other related to the offence, offender or the victim or all of these. The third step is to collate all the obtained information and identify suspect or suspects. The fourth step is to collect reliable and unshakeable evidences in regard to the offence committed and the person concerned who committed the crime. The next step is to file the charges and carry on the procedure of arresting the culprit etc. Domestic violence: These are crimes which quite often do not get reported for various reasons. However the police has a special responsibility to handle these cases diligently and efficiently, thereby preventing such violence in the society. The police can play an important role here by showing extra attention and providing knowledge to the victims of domestic violence in regard to the various facilities and services available to them. Developmental disabilities: Another important special population is those who suffer from developmental disabilities. Because of the disability, these people are not considered capable of understanding what is happening, why they are to appear in the court and many with this disability are also not fit to stand trial. In these cases the police will have to take the help of mental health professionals, psychologists and others to ascertain the degree of disability and to understand the extent of disability they suffer from and decide instead of imprisonment, if they could be sent for treatment to a hospital. Police thus play a different role in such cases. For all these, the police I will have to produce clear evidence regarding the degree of disability in the individual and whether he/ she could not even differentiate between right and wrong.To deal with this special population, the police needs to be trained, in particular they should be given sensitivity training with reference to people with disabilities of varied types and how to deal with them and which are the professionals whose help they need to take, etc. Every effort should be put in by the police to help the special population (the accused and the victims), receive the justice, care and special attention they deserve. Programmes have been developed for the police to identify and deal with immediately the violence perpetrated against a single individual or a group with disabilities. Police handling persons with mental illness: As for the police handling mentally ill persons, which is in the category of special population, it is the duty of the police to refer or even take persons to a hospital for psychiatric evaluation to ascertain whether the person is suffering from a mental disorder. The reason for doing so is the concerned individual may be a threat to himself or to others around him/ her because of the disorder, which needs to be handled and treated by professional in an institution or a hospital. Generally a family member or someone who has observed the person behaving oddly or strangely, or doing things that harm himself or others, can call the police and inform them about such a person. On getting this information, the police reaches the designate place and takes charge of the person and takes appropriate action as needed. In India, as per the The Mental Health Care Act, 2017, SECTION 100., the in- charge of a police station has a duty towards the mentally ill person as reported by passer by, or by a neighbour or relative in the concerned police jurisdiction. The officer should take the individual, (who suffers from mental illness and who is not in a position to take care of himself) ,under his protection with intimation to the mentally ill person's nearest relative, and take him/ her to a hospital at the earliest for assessment of his health condition and treatment. The police officer should not arrest or lock up the person or take him/ her into judicial or police custody under any circumstances. The public health institution / hospital in charge is responsible to assess and diagnose the case and make arrangements for the person's appropriate treatment. If the medical officer finds on assessment that the person has no mental illness, then he/ she has to report this information to the police officer concerned. On the other hand, if the police finds a person behaving oddly and wandering about aimlessly, the same has to be reported to the family which is to be traced by the police and the family has to be informed about the whereabouts of the individual missing. According to the Section 101, if the police officer in charge of a police station comes to know of a person within his/her jurisdiction is suffering from mental illness and is also being treated in private or in public, being badly treated or is neglected, etc. the officer should immediately report the fact to the magistrate, within the jurisdiction in which the mentally ill person resides. According to Section 102 of the Mental Health Care Act 2017, if the mentally ill person is brought before the Magistrate, the latter may order in writing that the mentally ill person may be sent to a hospital or health institution for assessment and if found to suffer from a mental disorder, the hospital / institution can take the responsibility for starting treatment to help the person overcome his illness and keep him/ her in the hospital for not more than 10 days. After the assessment and treatment, the medical officer has to send a report to the magistrate who will then pass order based on the report. Thus, the role and function of police officer in the case of special population Police Psychology is a challenging one and unless there is a continuous and regular as well as systematic training programme to sensitize these officers the special population may face difficulties in getting the due justice which is fair and equitable. Unless there is certain degree of independence, freedom and autonomy to take decisions and actions as the situation demands, it would be very difficult for the police to function effectively. It is important that police are independent , and at the same time they must ensure that their department or agency is accountable to the public who provide resource allocation, financial assistance, and establish policies and procedures to follow. The police need to balance independence and autonomy with accountability. Police is accountable in regard to political accountability, legal accountability, administrative accountability, community policing and providing unshakable evidence in the court of law which should not get dismissed by the judge as inadmissible. Thus, attempts need to be made to improve the relationship between the police and the public by taking measures such as promoting positive contacts of the public with police through Residential Welfare Association (RWA) and other people's organisations, reducing the negative encounters of the public with my the police and ensuring greater accountability of the police personnel, thereby ensuring impartial inquiry.

TRUTH AND DECEPTION Deception is defined as falsehood. It refers to the act of lying to someone or tricking that person. Deception refers to the act of making others believe a lie or falsehoods as the truth. It makes no difference whether the issue is small or big, positive or negative, kind or unkind. It is a lie that is told openly and blatantly and make the other person or persons believe in the same. The statement made is a blatant lie which is intended to deceive the other person or persons or group of people or the people as a whole in a community. Harmening and Gamez (2016, page 225) defined deception as “An untrue statement with additional details added that are designed to make the statement appear truthful”. The difference between lying and deceiving is that the former refers to the act of telling something which is false. Deceiving on the other hand refers to using a sort of plot for personal advantage of the person who is deceiving. Lying and deceiving, though both are quite similar they however differ in detail. Lying for instance is used for the purposes of deception. For example, if some one has been deceived, it implies that that there was a trick or scheme in the act that made the person loses and the deceiver gains. Apart from lying and deception, there is another term 'misleading'. Saying something not necessarily falsehood or untruth, but the final result is leading to the other person to have a misconception about something. On the other hand, in lying, there is definite falsehood and the person who says that knows very well it is falsehood. 8.2.1 Types of Truth and Deception There are various types of truth and deception (Harmening & Gamez, 2016, page 225). These are discussed as follows: • Objective truth: This can be termed as a statement that is true. There is no scope for misinterpretation. The facts are not manipulated in any way. For example, if a person has stolen something from another person, he/ she would just admit it and say “Yes I have taken it”. • Embellished truth: This is again truthful statement, though it also includes certain additional facts that are not true. And these facts are added in order to reduce the severity of the theft or crime carried out. An attempt here is made to decrease or change the complexion of objective truth. For example, the person who carried out the theft may say “Yes, I did it, but I was just playing a prank”. Embellished truth can be described as an objective truth with additional details. • Concealed truth: This is a statement that is an incomplete truth and in this the details regarding the objective truth are concealed. Thus, if a person has taken something from another person, he/ she may say “I am going to give back what I have taken”. Concealed truth can be described as an objective truth without details. • False truth: This is yet another type of truth and this denotes a statement that is false or untrue and is made by an individual who believes that it is an objective truth. Thus, person who has stolen something from another person may say “I have taken it, but I was told that I could take it”. • Coerced truth: This denotes a statement that is false and is put forth as an objective truth and is as an outcome of pressure, treat or manipulation by other individual(s). The person thus may say that he/ she has stolen from another person due to external pressure or manipulation, though in reality he/ she has not stolen. • Lie: A statement that is false and has no other details added to it or no further explanation or justification is provided. Thus, the person who is accused of steeling something could say” I have not taken it”. • Deception: This is a statement that is not true and includes additional details so that the statement appears to be true. Thus, he/ she person accused of steeling will say” I did not take it, someone must have put it there”. In deception, there is not only denial of the action, but additional details are added so that the statement made by the accused seems to be truthful. 8.2.2 Detecting Deception There are a few bodily signs and physiological changes that could help detect deception. For instance, facial and bodily cues, the size of the pupil (dilated), lip pressing, posture, eye blinking and so on. Detecting deception is extremely important in investigations, as the risk of going wrong when one is unable to differentiate between a lie and truth. In the process justice may be denied. Also, ensuring this distinction between lie and truth is very important when one is dealing with the allegations by the victims, when eyewitnesses are deposing before the police regarding what they witnessed, and to what extent they are telling the truth and finally the statements being made by the suspects, who deny they had committed the crime. There are methods available to find out the truth of any statement by the victim or the suspect, for example the polygraph test, also called as 'lie detector'. This is based on the autonomic responses in the person concerned who is being subjected to polygraph. However this method has not been considered highly accurate and thus are not considered quite reliable. Hence other clues are also being used in addition to polygraph by psychologists. For example facial expression, body language, linguistics to assist in finding out the truth and differentiate deception from truth. Psychologists are also innovating new softwares that could analyse facial expressions and writing style. There are persons who tell "high stakes" lies. Emmanuel and colleagues are collecting data on the demeanour and physiology of these high stakes liars. High stakes refers here to those people who tell lies even at the risk of their reputation being damaged, losing their freedom and in some cases their life and their family members' lives too. Another clue is the physical appearance of the individual concerned. For instance, their very appearance seem to be deceiving. They are less relaxed, no eye contact, turning away their face etc. There is also an association between lying and increase in the person's pupil size, pursing their lips, which are indicators of the tension that the person is experiencing as a result of deceiving. Secondly those who deceive, appear to be more nervous than those who tell the truth. There is even difference in the tone of their voice , for example the liars' voice is pitched higher. In 1978, Ekman and his colleagues published materials on "Facial Action Coding System". When this FACS is combined with other cues such as voice m assures, speech etc. the possibility of accurate judgement of deception becomes very high. Face and voice cues, gestures and words help to detect accurately deception. There is also another indicator. As the questioning and interview as well as testing continues, the micro expressions that may appear for a second or so give a signal regarding the person's emotions that he/ she wants to conceal, which would give an idea of whether the person is deceiving. Another indicator is the time one takes to answer a query. Research has shown that liars seem more negative, relatively more nervous than truth speaking persons. Also it has been observed that deceptions generally are uncooperative, talk less and reveal little, their answers are more discrepant, illogical, use less gestures and repeat many phrases and words, as compared to the truth speaking persons. (DePaulo and Morris, 2004). There are three primary written markers for deception and these are: fewer first person pronouns, more negative emotions like hate and fewer exclusionary words such as 'except', 'but' etc. Taking fewer first person pronouns, that is, liars generally avoid ownership to words and distance themselves from the story they narrate. Thus, in their writing they avoid first person pronouns etc. and avoid taking responsibility for their behaviours. As for negative emotions, they use words such as hate, worthless, sad etc. These people are stated to be more anxious and also feel guilty of their behaviours. As for the exclusionary words that they use such as 'but' etc. the researchers are of the view that these persons are able to distinguish between what they did and what they did not do. In this regard Gary Bond & Lee (2005) conducted a study on analysing the writing of felons jailed in New Mexico, Kansas and Mississipi. They were shown a video and then asked to write truthfully about the video. They found that truthful writing had far lesser negative emotions, greater number of self referencing and less use of exclusionary words like 'but' etc. as compared to those who were not truthful. Apart from the computer based programmes and softwares, there are many more methods to use in detecting lie and deception. For instance behavioural clue is one which can be used if the personnel are well trained in how to detect these clues and in what manner. In the USA, the American Psychology Association (APA), the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the National Institute of Justice joined together to conduct a comprehensive workshop for the personnel of the law enforcement agencies. Prof. Emmanuel (Professor of psychology) took lectures for them along with many other experts. Research in the area were presented on lying and deception. The personnel were trained as to how to look for the subtle clues, what they are and how they appear and how not to miss the same etc. It was pointed out that behavioural training to spot subtle cues are extremely important for the law enforcement personnel. Though there may be no typical signs per se of lies, the manner in which the person takes time to think and answer a very simple question is an indicator of the possibility of lying on the part of the person. Similarly an inappropriate emotion to a question which does not warrant such emotion could be another indicator of possibility of the person telling lies. The training given is such that the law enforcement personnel are attuned to looking for signs of body language, inappropriate emotions, a slip of the tongue, tendency to jump a topic or divert attention from the topic etc. They learn how to look for "Hot Spots". Also other indicators include demeanour of the person concerned (for instance a suspect) and the many vocal clues mentioned earlier are highly important to note and add to the analysis. In addition it is important to note the word usage of the person and their typical judgments on behaviours etc. All these need to be noted and added to analysis so that lie and deception could be easily delineated. However, it must be kept in mind that everyone cannot be well trained in this technique, as it requires persons with certain special ability to be highly alert, perceptive and high on emotional intelligence. Only such persons will benefit from the training and can be of great use in distinguishing persons who lie and deceive and persons who tell the truth so that justice could be ensured (O'Sullivan and Ekman, 2004). According to O' Sullivan, the law enforcement agencies should identify persons with basic core talent and give them the needed training for the purpose of distinguishing deception and truth. Instead of invasive techniques like lie detection etc. one could use noninvasive techniques in detecting lies and deception. These are non-verbal behaviours of the individual or the person concerned. The main assumption here is that the person when telling lies, enters a mental state which is different from the one when he/ she is telling the truth. This psychological state affects both verbal and non verbal behaviours of the individual. This to quite an extent indicates that deception of an individual leaks in predictable ways from the person concerned. This leak can be observed in the person's various behaviours, as for example in his communication cues, body movements, facial expressions etc. Depending on the skills acquired in such detections due to intense training, and with experience, the law enforcement person can diagnose and detect the deception with ease and more accurately. At the same time it must be kept in mind that the accused or the person being interviewed may also become so conscious about these cues that he/ she may hide them with effort thereby the law enforcement officer may not get the cue emitted by the accused and miss out important deception. Hence the training for the personnel has to keep in mind this aspect also. Adhering to the principle of the psychosomatic aspects, that is whatever is happening psychologically will affect the physical states of the individual, though difficult to detect from the behaviours the psychological underpinnings, yet the fact remains that there is a clear linkage between psychological state and physical state of the individual and hence if a person is deceiving or telling lies, it can be detected from the behaviour or from the subtle changes that occur in the person's physical state and behaviour. Research in the area has focussed on the cues sent by deceivers and received by the person interviewing. The findings showed that the cues consisted of nonverbal behaviours. These were coded systematically from the replays of speeches and interviews, that had been video taped and recorded for research purposes (National Research council, 1991).The research focussed mainly on observers asking subjects to rate the taped enactments. For instance, in one experiment, the observers rated the descriptions of student nurses' feelings about a film that was intended to arouse either positive or negative reactions. The nurses who were identified to be in the deception condition were asked to conceal their actual feelings aroused by the negative film. They reported their perceptions of the communicators' deceptiveness, usually on a numerical scale that discriminates degrees of deceptiveness or honesty. In addition, they were also asked to indicate the extent to which they are confident in making these judgments. The ratings of deception were analysed for accuracy and related to expressed confidence, the nonverbal cues, nonverbal behaviours etc. The results showed the following:

• Because of the link / association between emotions and behaviour, the non-verbal behaviours leak that information which the individual is trying to hide. When emotion is aroused, there appears changes in the face, voice tone, body movements etc. From these three one can detect deception. (Ekman, 1981).
• The discriminating cues provided by the body include decreasing use of hand (movements used for emphasis).
• Increased use of self-adapters (movements directed to one part of the body to another).
• More postural position shifts by deceivers.
• Coordinated body movement among deceivers, such as rocking, head shaking, trunk swivels and nodding - all these movements were happening together. (Drunkman et al., 1982) Thus, it can be stated that leaked cues to deception occur when an individual's psychological state reflects the experience of guilt. It may be kept in mind that such guilt arising depends on the background and culture the individual. Secondly, where cultural influences may affect the ascertaining of deception or truth, there could be an interrogator from the same cultural background and social setting. Thirdly, by using laboratory experimental methods combined with field studies and application of the research findings to actual real life situations, one can find more refined and effective methods to find the truth from deception. Lastly, videotaping all the interactive and interrogative sessions will help detecting the clues when the videoed sessions are repeatedly watched and specifically look fo leaked clues. This is all the more essential for research purposes. Also, taped interviews and discussions provide a baseline data and information on the cues emitted. These in turn can be used very effectively to evaluate behaviours including the past behaviours. The concept of leakage in deception and truth is well illustrated by Druckman et al (1982). He demonstrated how psychological states function as intervening variable between non verbal behaviours and intentions in the individual to say something. In an experiment, he made his subjects do role play after giving a task (role of an ambassador from Russia to the United Staes of America). In the first role they have to play as honest ambassador. In the second role, they had to play as an evasive ambassador and in the third role, they had to play the role of deceiving ambassador. Thus, they had to role play three different types, viz., honesty, evasion and deception. Following the role play they had to complete a questionnaire consisting of 26 item bipolar scale. The ratings given by them were correlated with their non verbal behaviours. Three typical factors emerged, viz., involvement, stress and confidence. Honest and evasive participants showed involvement. Evasive and deceptive participants showed stress and tension. While the honest participants showed high level of involvement, they also showed more directly seeing the interviewer and having eye contact with him. The deceptive participants on the other hand showed low level involvement and invariably turned away their faces from the interviewer. These results support the concept of leakage, and highlight the role played by emotions and feelings in the process of making inferences from nonverbal behaviours. It may be mentioned here that all participants showed high level of confidence though some were deceptive, some evasive and some honest.

What are the distinguishing factors between lying and deceiving?

what are the different types of truth and deception?

POLICE INTERROGATION AND TRUTH The police and law enforcement agencies use interrogation as an important tool of investigation. The investigation may be in regard to a serious crime like murder, or a civil crime like signature fraud etc. Irrespective of the crime being a cognizable or non- cognizable one, the police have the right to question the accused brought before them as the suspect who has committed the offence. Interrogation, in criminal law, is the process of questioning by which police obtain evidence. The process of questioning the accused can take many forms, because there are many types of questioning techniques like openended questioning, direct questioning, structured interviews polygraph examinations and brain electrical activation profiling, and narco-analysis tests. 8.3.1 Goals of Interrogation The main goal of interrogation is to obtain the needed information. Towards this goal, the interrogation continues on with many types of interventions, questions, counter questions etc. until a reasonably reliable answer is obtained from the suspect or the person who is being interrogated. The interrogation is for a purpose, that is, to obtain adequate and reliable evidence to prove that the offence committed by a person is true. The goal is to pin point the person who has committed the crime. The interrogator questions the accused and is able to take him/ her around the murder and beyond, making him/ her falter at times, covering his/her tracks at times, and stating different things as answer to the same question repeated at different time and at different intervals and contexts. While interrogating the accused also tries to achieve his/her own interests and protect himself/ herself from accusation and achieve the goal of being considered 'innocent'. 8.3.2 Types of Interrogation There are three types of interrogation:

1. In the first type, the respondent will give freely what ever information is needed. For instance, if there is a murder and it was witnessed a person, this individual when questioned or interrogated would give freely all the information.
2. In the second type, the person concerned, that is, the accused who is being interrogated will not reveal those information he/she would not like to divulge at all. For instance if the interrogator asks for the associates of the suspect, he/ she will not divulge that information
3. In the third type of interrogation, the attempt is to make the person concerned to confess. That is, the person admits to have committed the offence, may be a murder or sexual assault or whatever crime is being probed. Interrogation is not persuasion. The main goal as mentioned earlier is to get all the requisite information from the person so as to not only identify the suspect but also provide justice to the victim of the offence. In this there is a need for the individual concerned to collaborate. If the person is a professional offender who knows the various methods and skills in interrogation, he/ she can hide almost everything but the truth, give also absolutely false information, and thus the interrogator will fail in achieving his goal to get the true details of the offence and may not be able to identify the offender also. Hence it becomes imperative to use varied types of of choices and skills to get the truth from the suspect. As is well known when a common man visualises 'interrogation' the image is one of torture and using harsh methods to cull out the information from the offender. This image of torture and harsh treatment generally will make the offender concerned to tell the truth at the earliest stage of interrogation. However these fear based methods do not work at all with highly skilled professional offender as his/her motivation is to hide the fact to the maximum extent and may do so even at the cost of losing his/her life , or limbs or incarceration for many many years. Many times just to escape continuously being questioned and getting worn out, the suspect may tell total false information and divert the interrogator and convince him/ her that he/ she is telling the truth. In certain cases the interrogator may, by his/her persistent questioning, make a witness say many things that he/ she had and had not seen hence every effort should be put in by the interrogator to not accept at face value all that the witness or the suspect is saying but delve much deeper into depth by skilfully questioning, asking for evidence, repeating certain questions unexpectedly in different manner etc. The interrogator can also verify many of the statements by visiting the concerned place for verification of facts. Where the suspect is made to say certain things, because of being tortured, the court may not accept those statements not as these have been made under coercion. In the context of interrogation, we can also discuss about extreme interrogation. Historically torture as an interrogative technique has been used widely. One finds reference to this 800 years ago in Vatican, France and Spain which gives description of tortures carried out and meticulous financial records indicating the price of the instruments used for torture. The person's who were responsible for interrogation kept very detailed account of the methods that they used during interrogation including torture. In extreme interrogation, the police may use beating, binding the person in awful position and so on. In some tortures the person is deprived of food and drink for a few days. Unable to bear the pain , discomfort and humiliation, the person could confesse to a crime which he/ she may or may not have committed. Thus, in certain cases, an innocent person may be found guilty and incarcerated even though he/ she may not have committed the crime. Some of the extreme techniques include abdominal slap, cramped confinement, sleep deprivation, wall standing, water dousing and so on.

What are the types of Interrogation?

TECHNIQUES OF INTERROGATION Many techniques are employed in interrogation, some of which are discussed as follows:

1. Deception technique: In this the interrogator uses misstatements, false evidences and false sympathy to establish rapport with the accused and to manipulate circumstances, for instance, mutating that the autopsy report clearly showed the accused's involvement etc. so that the accused confesses to have committed the crime.
2. Suggestibility: Gudjonsson and Clark (1986) define interrogative suggestibility as, “the extent to which, within a closed social interaction, people come to accept messages communicated during formal questioning, as the result of which their subsequent behavioural response is affected”. From the above it may be seen that suggestibility is not the same as compliance. Suggestibility refers to the personal acceptance of the information by the accused. On the other hand, compliance refers to the individual who agrees to and carries on the suggested propositions, and instructions, in order to please the other person or avoid confrontation with the other. Suggestibility invariably leads to false admission by a person of having committed the act, while he/ she had not done so. Leading questions and negative feedback together contribute to false acceptance of a crime that one had not committed. Furthermore, according to Gudjonsson and Clark (2010), the suggestibility that is used in interrogation by the police, becomes a part of the individual's response mainly due to the culture in which the individual lives and interacts with others. More specifically, as pointed out by the authors above, the interrogative suggestibility is dependent upon the coping strategies people have which they use when faced with uncertainty and typical expectations as of the interrogative situation. As interrogation begins, the suspect processes the information and responds to the queries using his coping strategies developed over time from his own culture. Three aspects are important for suggestibility to function effectively, uncertainty, interpersonal trust andcertain expectations from the other. All these three can be manipulated which can increase or decrease suggestibility. 3) Use of mood altering drug in interrogation: Mood altering drugs cause marked changes in patterns of mood and behavior, as would a hallucinogenic drug. Mood altering drug use can be defined as substances that have the ability to produce profound perceptual and cognitive alterations. Many persons take this intentionally to induce an altered state of mind which they enjoy and which appears to them relaxing and for the time period, relieves them of their anxiety, worry etc. These are substances could produce habituation and addiction to the concerned drug. In the case of police interrogation however, using drug as a technique of interrogation is considered when physical and mental torture is to be avoided. Also it is less traumatic and may bring about the truth with certain ease, as compared to the physical tortures. The drug based interrogation perhaps started during the Cold War in the 20s, when the Central Intelligence Agency of the United States of America used 'truth serums', for interrogation purposes. This technique is also termed as "drug based helplessness" technique. This is used along side other techniques or sometimes exclusively by itself. In this drug based interrogation, the police use a drug called sodium pentathol, to extract the truthful statements from the suspect. Pentathol drug when injected, make the person concerned to be uninhibited in expressing even those aspects which they normally will not. This uninhibited, uncensored material may be the truth. However, even in such situations, the person being int reviewed may be able to control himself and stick on to whatever statements he/ she has been giving. When under the influence of the drug (pentathol), many questions related to the crime are put to the suspect and he/ she keeps answering them. In between certain question like the suspect having committed the crime comes up, and the manner in which the person answers gives a clear idea about the person's involvement in the crime. Thus, the drug based interrogation by the police provides them information about the suspect’s involvement as well as the extent to which he/ she is the culprit based on the responses given to the varying types of questions. The important aspect of the drug based interrogation is that the police or the law enforcement personnel who use pentathol for the purpose believe that it made people unable to censor themselves and thus narrate their experience or actually what they did from their memory. As one looks at the history of the use of drugs such as pentathol, for interrogation, it is seen that in the early part of the 20th century, (around 1910 or thereabout), Dr. Robert House found that an obstetric drug called scopolamine, was able to put his patient into a twilight sleep, from which state his patients gave all the needed information as if it was all automatically being delivered. He did not use it for criminal investigation purposes, but used it to give support to his client's claims of innocence, and not used it for making them confess to their guilt. Twenty years later, this drug was used to evaluate corruption in American police and it was found that the police were using this drug in interrogations and made the suspects confess and thus incriminate themselves. Following this, one finds these drugs being used during World War II in a different manner. For instance, anesthetiser were given intravenously to treat soldiers who were traumatised and thus could not remember anything. With these drugs, the doctors found that they could make the soldiers say what happened which in turn helped them feel better. Thus, Sodium Amytal and Pentothal were used not only for surgical purposes, but were also used for psychiatric purpose to make the patient a react and talk about their memories in psychiatric consultations many psychiatrist who took over as consultants to police, started using these drugs for interrogation. However, these statements of the suspects were not accepted in the court of law, as the suspects become highly suggestible under the influence of the drug and may make statements that are in line with the cues they get during questioning. Hence it will not be truthful statement but modified and stated to suit the interviewer, his/her attitude and the cues that he/ she gives in terms of what he/ she expects.
3. Using verbal and non verbal cues: While simple interrogation and interviews to torture and drug based interrogation, have been found useful in extracting the truth, in certain cases, none of these might work and truth will never be found out. However, while using many of these techniques to cull out the truth, the investigators and interrogators also make use of verbal and non verbal cues such as the body language, facial changes, gestures, repetition of words, jumping from one subject or topic to another, hesitancy or belated answers and so on. The non verbal cues refer to the way a person listens, looks, moves and reacts to the questions put across to him/ her or during interaction with the interviewer. Most of these cues will give an idea as to whether the person is telling the truth or deceiving. If nonverbal signs match the words being spoken, the it indicates truth. Where these do not match it causes distrust, confusion and tension. An effective and efficient interrogator would be alert to both nonverbal cues and body language in addition to the other techniques he/ she would be using. Non verbal communication plays five roles (Wertheim, 2012), and these can effectively assist in ascertaining if the person concerned tells the truth or not. The five roles, viz., repetition, contradiction, substitution, complementing and accenting are discussed below: In repetition the individual repeats whatever statement he/ she made or the information he/ she gave to the interrogator, he/ she repeats in the same way. Such repetition strengthens the verbal message. As for contradiction, the person concerned makes a statement or gives a certain information to the interrogator. A few minutes later or within the same interview he/ she contradicts whatever he/ she told earlier. This makes the interrogator doubt the statement and consider it a deception. Substitution is the third role played by non verbal communication. For instance, the person makes a statement or gives a certain information to the interrogator. However his/her facial expression is such that it indicates the opposite of the statement. In other words, facial expression of negation substitutes for the statement made by the person. In complementing, the person concerned makes a statement or give certain information verbally in regard to the terrible consequence to the interrogator, and follows it up by making a facial expression one of being frightened or by emotional expression with tears in his/her eyes. This shows how strongly true that information is. Last is the accenting. In this the person provides the information and follows it up by thumping on the table to add strength to his/her statement. Such behaviours could indicate that the person is telling the truth. Types of nonverbal communication: There are different types of nonverbal communication that include, facial expression, body movement and posture, gestures, eye contact, touch, and space. In regard to facial expression, it is well known that our faces express whatever we feel, or perceive or whatever emotions we experience. In fact our face expresses emotions so well that the person with whom we interact can understand hat emotions we are going through without ourselves conveying the same to him. Facial expressions are in fact universal in the sense every one has more or less the same facial expression when one is happy, surprised, angry, disgust and so on. These normally cannot be hidden unless a person puts in effort to control the Same. The second nonverbal communication is the body movement and posture. The manner in which a person sits, stands, walks or holds his head indicate a certain typical attitude that he/ she possesses. It also give valuable information about many aspects regarding the individual. The posture of the individual indicates friendly or unfriendly approach, and in cases of aggression the posture clearly depicts this emotion. As the interrogation continues, the slight movement the person makes can be interpreted as feeling of discomfort in regard to the particular question or that the person is trying to hide something etc. A negative signal such as crossing arms, or tapping feet etc. Would indicate disbelief and sarcasm. Another important nonverbal communication is the gesture. These are used by everyone as we talk to others or even when we want to convey something to another but they are far away to hear what we speak but can see the gesture, as for instance, waving your hands, (greeting), thumbs up (appreciating the other ), gesturing by your hand while arguing etc. These gestures emphasise the points that the person is making, as for instance in interrogation wherein the suspect is being questioned, the latter may make a statement and confirm it by the gesture of his/her hand. This can happen without the individual thinking about gesturing by his/her hand. In different cultures meaning of a particular gesture may vary. In regard to eye contact, it is quite known that the way a person looks at another will convey to him/ her what the person feels, such as love, affection, anger, shyness, etc. When a person specifically avoids eye contact as may happen in interrogation when the accused is making a statement, he/ she may not look at the interrogator but look elsewhere, indicating thereby deception, that is, what he/ she said and what the eye contact indicates are contradicting each other. A person who tells the truth would always look into the eye of the other person, that is, he/ she will have good eye contact indicating truthfulness. Eye contact is important to continue on a conversation and shows the person's interest and involvement in the individual concerned. The next nonverbal communication is the touch. By merely touching the other person we can convey, how much we care for him/her or by hugging we can show how much we love a person, or by touching the head, convey our blessings and good wishes for the other person and so on. The nonverbal communication of space refers to the distance you keep from the other. If you stand close to the other person and speak to him, it indicates friendliness, affection and intimacy. However, if you stand far away from the person, and talk to him/her, it would indicate dominance, aggression etc. At times, going very close to the other person, giving him/ her no space at all will indicate aggression and intimidation. In an interrogation situation, the interrogator himself/herself can take a stand of aggression by standing very close to the person almost as if he/ she may assault him. Also, when the interviewee stands far away from the interrogator, would indicate fear of the interrogator and the wish to avoid him, lest he/ she injures him. Thus physical space between the interviewee and the interrogator clearly communicates many feelings both on the part of the suspect and on the part of the interrogator. Voice is the next type of nonverbal communication. It is important what we say, how we say and what words we use and the tone of the voice, etc. In an interview situation, the interrogator can use a gruff voice, loud tone, or a soft nice voice and make the person confess to a crime. In the former he/ she creates a fear and in the latter he/ she tries to be sympathetic and puts up a a show of wanting to help the accused particularly if he/ she says the truth etc. The tone of voice can indicate sarcasm, anger, happiness, confidence, sadness, affection and also fearfulness. Though by and large all the nonverbal cues do convey and communicate the real aspect of a situation, at times, the interviewee or the suspect may control almost all these non verbal cues and give a totally different picture as compared to the real one. Hence the person who can control all his/her emotions and also understands what the non verbal cues will convey, can make deliberate effort and hide the real matter thereby deceiving the interrogator. Thus, to conclude nonverbal cues, it may be stated that interrogator uses and understands all these cues very effectively from his own side and onthe part of the suspect to arrive at the correct conclusion regarding the crime or offence which is being investigated. It must be mentioned here that to be effective and to get at the truth rather than deception, the interrogator may have to use verbal, physical and nonverbal methods to extract the truth from the suspect. Depending exclusively on the gadgets, torture, or drugs etc. will not lead to truth , but combining nonverbal cues to these other methods would help getting at the truth of the offence being investigated.
4. Pride-and-ego (up or down): This technique is used to encourage the prisoners to cooperate. Generally in this technique the interrogator attacks the very source of the self pride and self esteem the prisoner has. The attempt is to redeem the prisoner's pride, which if successful would provide the required information from the prisoner so as to vindicate himself/herself. The interrogator attacks the source of his/her self image and the ego? This makes the respondent to try to convince the interrogator that the latter is wrong. He/she will try to redeem his/her pride in the process by providing very important information so that he/she could vindicate himself/herself and restore his/her damaged ego. The attack is generally on the prisoner's loyalty and his/her organisation, in addition to his/her very high level competence about which the prisoner is very proud of. Also the attack will be on even the prisoner's looks, dress and his/her soldierly qualities and leadership qualities. Such attacks damages and destroys the ego of the prisoner and he/ she makes every effort to regain his self image and downsized ego. Towards this, he/ she would avoid such information which are highly confidential just to show how much worth he/ she is and how great he/ she is. Where a prisoner is determined not to be beaten by the ego devastating techniques of the interrogator, will succeed in not revealing anything to the latter which may by itself will be humiliating to the interrogator.
5. Good cop bad cop technique: A well-known interrogation technique in law enforcement, is the good cop, bad cop strategy. In this the so called 'bad' cop comes in and interviews the suspect. He / she shouts at the suspect, intimidates him/ her, and uses all types of assaultive approaches. He/she could be hostile and abusive and leaves after an hour or so of this tirade. Then come the good cop to interview the suspect. He/ she is very kind, considerate, sympathetic, behaves like a friend, offers water, makes the suspect believe that he is there to help him/ her etc. The good cop is also transparent and the assures the suspect that everything will be fine and then says that how bad cops have attitude and threatens for no reason and just frightens every on. Now that he/she (the good cop) is here, he/ she will take care of every thing.This attitude and approach makes the suspect or the accused feel relaxed and comfortable and to avoid being confronted again with the bad cop, the accused or the prisoner states as many details as the good cop wants. Thus, many truths are extracted using this technique. 7) Tactics as a technique in interrogation: In criminal investigations, the police uses many techniques and tactics to extract the truth from the suspect. Some behave as if the suspect is really not the one they are looking for, but for the purpose of clarification of certain aspects of the case, they want to interview him/ her and thus calls him/ her to the police station for further inquiry.
6. Reid technique: The Reid technique is a method of interrogation. This technique was developed by John E. Reid, in the 1940-50s. This is a behaviour analysis interview. It is non accusatory in nature. It involves both standard interview questions and also structured behaviour provoking questions. It involves steps to obtaining a confession as well as methods for detecting signs of deception in the suspect's body language. The Reid technique involves basically three components, viz., factual analysis, behavioural analysis interview and interrogation. Factual analysis: In factual analysis, the suspect is evaluated on certain specific observations related to the crime / offence. This requires the following: • Details of the crime scene analysis. • Details regarding the background of each suspect. • Estimation of the guilt or innocence in each of the suspects. • Opportunity available to them for committing the crime. • The offender's access to various instruments and materials. • The offender's access to the victim. • Motivation to commit the crime. • Propensity to commit the crime Behaviour analysis interview: This is a non- accusatory session of question and answer. After the background related questions to ascertain the detailed information of the suspects are asked, certain other questions are asked which are mainly to elicit behaviours of truth or deception from the interviewee. The behaviour analysis interview provides the interrogator objective criteria to ascertain whether the interviewee is stating the truth or lies. This stage also provides the interrogator enough time and space to establish rapport to continue on with various questions with the objective of finding the truth regarding the crime. This session also facilitates formulation of interrogation strategy. Interrogation: According to Reid, interrogation can occur only if the police or the investigator is quite sure that the suspect is involved in the offence concerned. The Reid website states that an interrogation “should only occur when the investigator is reasonably certain of the suspect's involvement in the issue under investigation.” There are nine steps to the Reid interrogation technique, briefly described below. Step 1: The first step is positive confrontation. The investigator tells the suspect that the evidence demonstrates the person's guilt. If the person's guilt seems clear to the investigator, then he/ she should say so without hesitation and ambiguity. Step 2: Following positive confrontation, the interrogator makes a moral justification for the offence committed by the accused and thus not blaming the accused but some one else for the offence. This he/ she does sympathetically and wins the confidence of the offender hoping to make him/ her tell the truth. Step 3: In addition to positive statements and sympathy, the interrogator finds that the accused is trying to deny the accusations. At this point of time, the interrogator when requested by the offender to permit him/ her to deny the accusations, he/ she does not allow him, as normally an innocent person does not ask for permission to deny the accusation. Also an innocent person does not go beyond this stage of interview. Step 4: When not allowed to deny the accusation, the accused generally resorts to object the accusation in support of his/her innocence. For instance he/ she might say that he/ she would n vet kill the person as he/ she loved him/ her a lot and that such idea ever occurs in his/her converses the explanations given by the accused, without arguing against it, the interrogator goes on to use those explanations to further the investigation of the theme. Step 5: During this time, every effort is made by the interrogator to retain the focus and attention of the accused on the theme rather than on punishment. For this the interrogator does two things, one, he/ she closes the physical distance between himself/herself and the accused in a friendly manner and presents to the accused the probable alternatives and alternate components to the theme thus the interrogator channelises the theme to alternative components which appear plausible so that the accused is off his/her guard and agrees to an extent with the possible alternatives. From here, the interrogator can progress towards the truth of th crime. Step 6: The next step in the interrogation with Reid's technique is to go into depth of them and make the accused concentrate on the main or basic reasons for the offence, especially the psychological justification for committing th crime. At the same time the interrogator urges the suspect to state the truth. Step 7: In this step, the suspect is either questioned assuming that he/she is quity or is presented with supporting statement that encourages him/her to choose the alternative that is clear to him/ her and he/ she is able to understand the same. Step 8: Following the 7th step, the interrogator asks the accused to state orally various details of the offence. It is important at this time for the interrogator to reinforce his/her acknowledging admission of committing the crime. To support this, details of the crime and related aspects are being asked to be orally presented by the accused and make the accused review each one of them to so also to understand the consistency in the various statements. Towards this goal, many questions are asked by the interrogator which brings out the maximum details of the crime. Step 9: In the final step, which is the 9th one, the oral confession is converted into a written confession. Generally the interrogator may record all the sessions as they occur and when the confession is orally made, it is also part of the record. From the recorded as well as the oral confession, the whole thing is transcribed into written confession. Write out the whole thing in the suspect's own language. While Reid technique is very useful and quite elaborate , it has been criticised on the grounds that training personnel to discern if a person is telling the truth or lying may not necessarily make the personnel effective. The reason for this is, people in general cannot make an accurate judgement of truth and deception based on non verbal cues which are by themselves not diagnostic of deception. They cannot accurately distinguish between false denials and truths which can be done even by chance and thus ending with erroneous judgements. (Leo, 2018). Also, another criticism is that Reid technique uses such questioning and the manner in which it is conducted, can lead to false confessions which is an important problem in using this method. However, Reid and his colleagues are of the view that there is nothing wrong with the Reid technique, but the officers who use this technique do not follow the requisite procedures.
7. PEACE method of interrogation: While Reid method has been popular with police investigations etc. there is another method less confrontational as compared to the Reid method. This is called Peace method, and consists of Preparation and Planning, Engage and Explain, Account, Closure and Evaluate (PEACE). Under this method, the accused is allowed to tell his story in his own words and pace without being interrupted by the interrogator. Steps involved in PEACE method are as follows: Step 1: This step involves preparation and planning by the interrogators or interviewers. They write out a detailed plan of interview of the suspect with a focus on the objectives of the interview, and the order in which the interview will be conducted. The plan also states how long the suspect has been in custody and how much time he/ she is required to be in custody. The plan would clearly state the topics that would be covered in the interview and the matters and materials which are essential to prove the offence and provide a defence to the suspect. The written material also indicates the various practical arrangements that need to be made, the location at which the interview will be held etc. Step 2: Step 2 is about engage and explain. In this step the interrogator typically establishes rapport with the suspect by engaging him/ her in a conversation and listening to the suspect attentively and intently through out. Interviewers may need to consider practical arrangements, such as visiting the scene or the location of the interview. Step 3: This step is related to account. In this step, the interviewee states in detail all that happened and presents complete detail of events that took place in chronological order to the extent possible, and during this time there should be no interruption and the suspect should be allowed to continue telling the event in detail. If at all any question is put to the suspect, it is to be short and free of any jargon and technicalities so that the suspect can expand and elaborate where necessary as required. All leading questions should be avoided. Step 4: Closure, is the fourth step which is termed as 'closure'. In other words, this step gives a closure to the interview as a whole. There should be no abrupt ending to the interview, and before closing and after the interviewee has completed his/her narration to the full, the interrogator must summarise all that were told by the suspect and give him/ her opportunity to correct any part of the summary and allow him/ her to ask questions for the purpose of clarification. Step 5: The last step is called the evaluation step. In this step, the interrogator evaluates as to how far the narration and the statements made by the suspect is in line with the investigations carried out so far. Secondly, in this step the interrogator decides whether further action is to be taken and finally reflect on the performance of the interrogator and other related persons in terms of the interview conducted. Thus, the PEACE method is a more humane and less attacking method. However, whether it would really bring out the truth or make a person falsely confess or deceive need to be researched more.
8. Kinesic interview: In this method the investigator analyses the suspect's behaviour in order to find out if he/ she is deceiving. This method is in quite a few aspects similar to the Reid method discussed earlier. Kinesic is the study of non-verbal communication. This has two phases, viz., analysis phase and interrogation phase. In the analysis phase, the interrogator uses many techniques to observe and analyse the behaviour of the person to determine if he/ she is telling the truth or deceiving. In this also the interview goes through four stages, viz., orientation, narration, cross examination, and resolution. (Walters, 2012)
9. Maximisation and minimization technique: In addition to all the above techniques of interrogation, the police uses two basic categories, viz., maximisation and minimisation. In maximisation the police uses every method possible to make the accused admit to have committed the crime, whereas in minimisation, the accused is not directly blamed or found guilty by making him/ her confess, but deflecting the blame to circumstances and other aspects not particularly related to the accused concerned. In other words, the police minimises the suspect's involvement in the crime. This technique is called maximisation and minimisation technique which is used very effectively by the police exclusively or by combining both. There are other relevant techniques as well, let us also focus on these. 12) The cognitive interview: In the case of witnesses and others who report about the crime and its details and what they witnessed etc. quite often one finds that they change their version, present different details, add or delete some things from their original statement and so on. The police to overcome some of these problems and help the persons enhance their memory and retrieval processes, resort to cognitive interview, which is a technique of questions (Fisher & Geiselman, 1992). There are four principles of cognitive interview and these are:

• Event -interview similarity: Interrogators while use the cognitive interview method, try to create the same or similar psychological environment that would have existed at the time the crime was committed. For instance, the weather as similar to the one that was at the time of the crime, the emotional state of fear and relevant thoughts that would have been in the mind of the person, are recapitulated during the interview. It is believed that such event similarity would help the person to remember many things that he/ she would have forgotten in the normal course of living.
• Focussed retrieval: Retrieving some of the past memories requires concentrated effort without any disturbance or distraction. The interviewer or interrogator tries to help the person (witness or accused) to focus attention and concentrate on the event that had taken place. Any interference with the flow of thoughts of the person will affect adversely the narration and remembering of the event accurately.
• Extensive retrieval: In this, the interrogator helps the person to make as many attempts as possible to remember and retrieve whatever memory he/ she has regarding the vent. The assumption here is the more times the retrieval is attempted, many more information that were not given will emerge and the person is able to recall many instances and things that happened at that time. This is called the extensive retrieval and this is a very effective method to bring out many information about that have been stored in the memory.
• Witness - compatible questioning: The eyewitness or any individual has his or her own unique way of organising materials in memory. To retrieve the information from memory, uniform questioning or the same method of questioning for everyone will not work. For each individual, different approach in questioning to suit their unique needs is required as otherwise the interview will not achieve the goal of retrieving all the essential material from the memory. Apart from the above four principles of cognitive interview, the interview is set in five stages. In the first stage the interviewer establishes rapport with the witness or the person whom he/ she is interviewing. In the second stage, planning is given importance, as this is information collection phase and the person is asked to narrate without any interruption the event that occurred in its entirety. The third stage is getting further detailed information by guiding the interviewee through those areas and memories which are rich in content (information rich mental representation). In the 4th stage, all the information collected as narrated by the witness or the person are reviewed together and the final, that is, the 5th stage is the terminal stage when the interview is terminated but with a suggestion that further interviews if required, will be conducted or the witness may be called if some more information is required. By and large cognitive interview elicits more information as compared to other methods. In a classic study by Fisher et al (1989), they compared cognitive interview results before and after training of the personnel in cognitive interview. Results clearly showed that the trained personnel were able to extract 47% more information as compared the untrained person. Thus, cognitive interview is considered a very useful tool and a method of interview that could elicit considerable truthful and factual information from the victim as well as from the witnesses.

13. The polygraph: In the previous sections and pages we have been considering various methods used by the police to ascertain truth from the accused and how deception is detected, etc. Over the years, many methods have been tried none of which has been highly reliable to cull out truth. In many cases, some of the methods ended in false confessions and even methods like torture, and even cognitive interview have been subjected to criticism. Hence efforts to find a scientific method, that would be reliable and measurable indicating the truth, has been continuing and one such methods is called the polygraph. In this the person's physiological responses that can be measured will indicate deception and thereby one could get at the truth. This method which relied on physiological responses (that cannot be manipulated or hidden easily) was considered a great discovery and was used widely in the United States and other countries, such as Japan, Israel, Canada etc. In the US, the law enforcement used this method to identify criminals, spies, and other related persons who came into conflict with the law of the land. There are three important purposes where polygraph is used: (1) For pre- employment and pre-clearance screening in law enforcement and security agencies (2) For screening current employees especially in security sensitive occupations. (3) For investigation of specific events in criminal cases. The polygraph test uses many physiological measurement apparatuses such as sphygmomanometer which measures the blood pressure of the person, respiratory rate, pulse and heart rate, and electro dermal response (EDR).The procedure followed in polygraph is first connect the various gadgets to the individual concerned and while all gadgets are on, the investigator asks questions of the person, related to the crime or off nice being investigated. The person is asked to respond with Yes or No to each question. All responses are digitally recorded and a chart is also made available called as polygraph chart. It is not that the polygraph detects deception directly but the gadgets do show changes when a person is lying than when the person is stating the truth. Over the years, many technologies have developed which all use physiological responses to detect deception. These include, brain scans, voice tremors and the like. The machine measures all the physiological responses that are believed to be stronger during acts of deception. What really happens is, when a question is put to the person, it causes a reaction. As for example if the question relates to the crime committed by the person, automatically, his/her system will respond with fear or higher heart beat, change in respiration rate, blood pressure, Skin conductance, etc. This would give a cue to the interrogator regarding the link between the accused and the crime. According to some polygraph theories, a deceptive response to a question causes a reaction and psychological arousal which may include such as fear of detection or some guilt etc. that changes respiration rate, heart rate, blood pressure, or skin conductance. These changes when compared to the readings of the measurement before the start of the polygraph, would show the deception or the truth. Analysis of the polygraph chart to relevant to irrelevant questions would also indicate the aroused physiological response to relevant questions. It is presumed that the relevant questions create some level of anxiety and concern in the person which would result in much stronger physiological response. Comparison question tests are used both for specific-event and general. Despite these benefits, polygraph has been criticised for various reasons, for instance one cannot say the physiological responses are directly linked to deception. Many other reasons could bring about similar or same physiological and psychological responses. Another criticism against the polygraph is regarding whether questions asked are appropriate and whether there is different physiological response for different questions. Will the physiological reading be the same if any other interviewer or interrogator uses the same polygraph on the same individual asking questions of the same person. The association between deception and physiological response - are they the same across all accused or interviewees, is a question that also needs exploration and research as it is one of the criticisms against polygraph. Another aspect is whether the relationship between the interrogator and examinee affect the physiological responses. Interpretation of polygraph involves the following:

• Comparing the physiological responses to questions that are relevant for the concerned offence with the physiological response to neutral questions not concerned much with the offence. - Interpretation is carried out by reviewing the polygraph chart by the examiner.
• Coding of the responses is done according to a standard protocol. However, interpretation of the chart can also be done by others and also by the computer. People other than the examiner may also use the standard protocol to code a chart. Chart interpretation can also be done using computer.
• Polygraph testing is compared with various other techniques also in order to validate its findings , and also compare the efficacy of the different techniques in detecting deception.
• Guilty knowledge polygraph testing uses questions that are based on the event under investigation. Usually the details of the event are known only to the investigator or the interviewer who is putting questions to the accused during polygraph test. The questions are presented in a multiple choice format. The physiological response changes that occur to any of the multiple choice would indicate that the person had hidden some information about that issue. There are several sets of such questions and the examiner can clearly interpret the physiological response as indicative of deception or truth.
• The polygraph examiner may also consider other aspects in the individual. For instance in all cases before the actual polygraph test, the examiner conducts a pre test to ascertain some of the typical characteristic traits of the individual which are used later after the polygraph test is over. As the polygraph test is under way, the examiner also forms impressions about the truthfulness of the accused, based on the demeanour as well as responses in the pretest interview. These impressions do affect the interpretation of the polygraph chart. Thus, a polygraph test and its results are a product of a combination of interview of the person, interrogation and pre test impressions and the interpretation of the polygraph chart in terms of the psychophysiological measurements obtained through the various gadgets. (National Research Council, 2003)

14. Forensic assessment: Forensic assessment is primarily for legal purposes. In many cases, the court requires to know if the accused or the defendant is capable of understanding what is going on in the court and whether the person concerned can stand trial in the court and whether he/ she understands he/ she also has certain rights and can ask for a lawyer for himself/herself or has the right not to speak etc. Thus, forensic assessment focusses on the mental status and cognitive abilities of the individual and reports to the court the medical, psychiatric and psychological assessment to assist the court in its deliberations. Also such forensic assessment helps in planning treatment programme where necessary. Thus, the primary purpose of forensic assessment is legal and not psychological. The court asks for forensic assessment when the court requires answer to a specific legal question, as for example, insanity issue in the accused or the victim, competence issue etc. Based on the request by the court, forensic assessment is taken up by clinical interviews and elicits detailed case history starting from childhood to the present day, the schooling, relationships, medical problems faced if any etc. with the person concerned referred for assessment, conducting interviews with family members of the person, his/her friends, colleagues, the police officer and the person's lawyer, and so on (referred to as collateral interviews), and takes up varied essential psychological testing that would throw light on the personality, criminal propensity and many other personality characteristics of the person referred to forensic assessment. Based on all these information, the forensic psychologist forms an opinion about the case referred and prepares answer for the court on issues of their concern such as competence etc. Thus, forensic assessment is part of larger psychological assessment, but mainly focusses on legal issues concerned with court orders in criminal and civil cases. Forensic psychologists differ from other psychologists such as clinical psychologists etc. in the sense that their purpose, training and practice are different. They function in places like law enforcement, prisons, correctional settings, criminal and civil courts. It is important to note that settings in which they function includes law enforcement, correctional settings, criminal and civil courts. Though the various psychological tests used may be the traditional ones, they focus more on most common applications of psychology to the law, prevalent in a variety of legal settings. A relatively new specialty, forensic assessment is one of the fastest growing areas in clinical psychology. Increasing numbers of psychologists are conducting, analysing, and presenting psychological data in various legal settings. It has been estimated that hundreds of thousands of forensic assessments are conducted annually by psychologists and other mental health professionals. Unlike therapeutic assessment, which occurs at the request of the patient, forensic assessment is commonly conducted at the bequest of the legal system. As such, forensic assessment is often not voluntarily sought by the person being evaluated and has more limited confidentiality than traditional therapeutic assessment. The person undergoing forensic assessment may resist the evaluation or may knowingly or unknowingly try to influence the assessment to further his/her her legal situation. Attempts to feign mental illness or present oneself in a positive light are more common in forensic assessment than in traditional therapeutic assessment and should always be considered. Traditional assessment is concerned primarily with the examinee’s view of the problem or events. Although forensic assessment does pay attention to the examinee’s perspective, it is more concerned with the accuracy of events than is traditional therapeutic assessment. Unlike therapeutic assessment, which casts the examiner in a supportive or helping role, the forensic evaluator’s duty is to the legal fact finder, which may or may not assist the person being evaluated. In other words, the client in traditional therapeutic assessment is the person being evaluated, whereas in forensic assessment, the client is the legal fact finder. Finally, the scope of the two types of assessment differs. Therapeutic assessment typically covers broad clinical issues such as diagnosis, personality, and treatment. Forensic assessment, in contrast, is solely determined by the legal question at hand and, as such, commonly concerns more narrowly defined issues or incidents than what is covered in traditional therapeutic assessment. Although an examinee’s mental health and therapeutic needs may be discussed in forensic assessments, such discussions occur only in the context of the larger psycholegal referral question. Recent years have seen a rapid increase in the teaching, training, and supervision of psychology graduate students, interns, and postdoctoral fellows. Numerous conferences and continuing education opportunities have proliferated as well. In the mid-1980s, the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP) began signifying psychologists who have advanced knowledge and competence in forensic psychology by the awarding of diplomate status, and in the early 1990s the American Psychological Association (APA) recognised forensic psychology as an APA specialty. In addition to the ethical codes of conduct in psychological practice as well as standards for testing (for example, Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct [EPPCC] and Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing), there are general and specific guidelines for forensic practice. The Specialty Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists (SGFP) were published in 1991, and a revision is under way. The SGFP are general in nature and apply to all areas of forensic psychological work. Unlike the EPPCC, which contain rules of conduct that are enforceable for APA members, the SGFP are aspirational and advisory. The SGFP inform psychologists about the nature and development of competent and responsible forensic practice with the goal of continuous improvement and enhancement. In addition to the SGFP, specialty guidelines and standards have been developed for certain areas of forensic work (for example, Guidelines for Psychological Evaluations in Child Protection Matters and Standards for Psychology Services in Jails, Prisons, Correctional Facilities, and Agencies). Several general instructions should be kept in mind when conducting forensic assessments. First, the conclusions and opinions need to be formed from a scientific basis. Quality forensic reports substantiate opinions with data and outline the reasons for the conclusions drawn. Forensic examiners must be prepared to defend the method of data collection and its scientific basis. Therefore, data should be collected carefully, and the limits of any data collected should be recognised and reported. Interpretations made during a forensic assessment should be based on multiple methods of data collection. The response style of the examinee should always be assessed for attempts to minimise or feign psychological impairment. The best method for conducting a forensic assessment and writing a subsequent forensic report is to imagine that all methods and conclusions are being critiqued by an opposing attorney. Finally, testing instruments, if used, should be related to the legal issue at hand and should be theoretically and psychometrically sound. Typically, when people speak about forensic assessment they are referring to psychological assessments as part of civil or criminal court cases. The broad definition of forensic assessment used in this entry also encompasses forensic assessment in law enforcement and correctional settings. Overlap may exist between settings. A forensic assessment might be conducted for use in more than one setting or might be completed for one setting only to be used later in another setting. Law enforcement is, of course, a broad term for the work of police officers in a variety of settings. Psychological assessment in law enforcement settings may involve criminal profiling and psychological autopsies as well as direct work with police officers. Psychological assessment of police officers can include screening of police candidates, fitness-for-duty evaluations, and promotional evaluations. Forensic assessment might be conducted to provide insight into and predict criminal behavior with the goal of preventing future criminality. This area of risk or dangerousness assessment has been quite popular in both clinical and research arenas, with much attention given to isolating the variables associated with recidivism, especially violent recidivism. Assessment in correctional settings can also be used to assess amenability to treatment and/or rehabilitation and may be subsequently used in reaching sentencing and parole decisions. Psychological assessment may also be used to evaluate the mental health needs of jail and prison inmates, as well as the psychological effects of imprisonment. Both civil and criminal courts increasingly request and use psychological data. Civil courts handle disputes between citizens; criminal courts handle disputes between a citizen and the state. Examples of where forensic assessment might be involved in civil courts include divorce and child custody cases, competency to consent to treatment or provide care for oneself, examinations of testamentary competence, or civil suits where psychological or neurological injury might be involved (for example, malpractice cases or automobile accidents). Certain types of cases have been traditionally categorised as civil but, given the potential deprivation of liberty involved, have been labeled as “quasicriminal” by scholars in the field. The two types of quasi-criminal cases are civil commitment hearings and juvenile delinquency cases. Forensic assessment is invaluable in civil commitment hearings, in which most states require a finding that the person is mentally ill and is a danger to self or others or in need of care or treatment. There are many stages in juvenile delinquency proceedings where forensic assessment can be of assistance. Issues that used to occur primarily in the adult criminal justice system, such as competency to stand trial, are increasingly being raised in juvenile cases. In addition, juveniles may be evaluated for their amenability to treatment in the juvenile justice system. If they are not considered amenable, their case may be waived to adult court. A child who is tried through the juvenile justice system may undergo a pre - sentence evaluation to determine the best disposition of his or her case. As one lists out, it is seen that the forensic assessment is involves evaluating the person's competency to be sentenced, evaluating competency to stand trial, evaluating the defendant's criminal responsibility and in many criminal cases insanity defence evaluations is also carried out. There is a tendency to confuse between the terms competency to stand trial and criminal responsibility. While the former focusses on the individual's mental status, his/her cognitive abilities, his/her attention and concentration etc. the latter refers to the mental state of the person at the time of committing the crime. Also they evaluate the individual's competence to plead guilty. Some of the important considerations that decide about what tests to use are for instance:

• Relevance of the test to the legal question.
• The psychological construct that underlies the legal issue
• The specific issues involved in the psycholegal question.
• To use only those tests that have a sound theoretical and psychometric base.
• The test results and the legally relevant behaviours must correlate. It is important to have that confirmation of correlation by a third party using and interpreting the same tests and assessments. This would eliminate any confounding results even if a person had given false information. This is a very essential requisite in forensic and legal contexts. Furthermore, where the cases involve retrospective inquiries in regard to any psychological test results, it is always better to have third party testing which will confirm the earlier findings. Conventional psychological tests are not generally used in forensic investigations as they were not devised to address psycholegal questions and have not been standardised using forensic population. Hence establishing a clear link between the legal issue and the test that has been selected for use must be ensured. Even though the psychologists may recommend and use a test appropriate and suitable for the concerned investigation, it must be kept in mind that the selected test has to be presented and received by the legal system and therefore they have to ensure that the selected test is very appropriate to the legal issues being investigated. There are three aspects to be kept in mind: (a) tests for assessment; (b) tests for diagnosis and (c) tests for treatment. Tests for assessment includes all assessment techniques that have been devised for diagnosis, treatment of non forensic population. These tests in addition to taking a detailed interview with patients and working out case history, helped both in diagnosis and planning therapy for patients. However when dealing with forensic population considerable care should be taken in selecting the appropriate tests linking them to typical legal issues being handled ( Melton et al., 1997). The tests for diagnosis though not specifically devised for legal issues, are nevertheless considered relevant to legal situations and are considered forensically relevant also. Some of these measures include for instance, assess the response style of the accused or the examinee, evaluating how far the individual is feigning problems, which all can be assessed with the help of MMPI-II and structured interview of reported symptoms. There are also in this category assessment instruments to be used in child custody cases. For instance, Parenting Stress Index and Hare Psychopathy Checklist. With reference to tests for treatment, the forensic assessment tests are for specific legal cases and are directly concerned with the individual's psycholegal capacity, his ability to understand the legal problems in which he/ she is involved. These instruments classify and quantify the individual's responses. These instruments are of value because they reduce the examiner's bias. Different examiners' assessments could be compared also to confirm the validity of these instruments. By and large one finds many forensic assessment tools that can be listed as given below:
• Inwald Personality Inventory by Robin Inwald. This was meant to assess police officer candidates for any maladjustment sand negative behaviours that may adversely affect their performance on the Job.
• The Jail Screening Assessment tool, that helps identify the prisoners who may require specific and a little more advanced mental health care and treatment. (Dietzel et al., 2017).
• Forensic instruments are also used in civil quasi criminal, Juvenile justice and criminal cases. These include parenting capacity, daily decision making, competency to manage health care decisions etc. Examples include the MacArthur Competency Assessment Tool for treatment and Instrument for Assessment for Standing Trial for Defendants with Mental Retardation).
• Juvenile Adjudicative Competence Interview is another forensic instrument used in Juvenile justice proceedings.(AACP, 2000).
• Grisso's instrument for assessing understanding and appreciation of Miranda Rights (Grisso, 2003).
• Roger's Criminal Responsibility Assessment Scale.
• Fitness Interview Test (revised). All the above measures and many more which are forensically relevant are available to use in the present day. Though many tests are devised and are available for forensic and criminal cases, these have to be standardised on the particular population concerned, researched in great detail, and tested rep steely for their reliability and validity as well as for its norms. All these instruments for testing and assessment are used by forensic psychologists who would have devised them or borrowing these available tests for use. However in the courts they will have to prove that they are experts in the field and the reason that they used the instruments was specifically for levant to the case concerned. They have to explain with proof how standardised these tests are and the typical reasons for using the instrument concerned. This top of questioning by the court and the need to respond adequately to the court's questions and cross questions regarding the tests as well as the qualifications of the expert, form part of expert testimony. Some of the conditions for accepting the expert testimony , in addition to the above, include: the tests used must have general acceptance; there should be increased scrutiny of the standards of developing the tests and the tests must have high reliability, validity and peer review (AERA, 1999).

Explain the 14 techniques of interrogation?