Conversation with Merlin [email protected] · Sat Dec 02 2023

write us the following parts for a paper on this article: - Introduction:- Materials and methods

  • Results and discussion
    • Comments and personal evaluation

Given the context, here's a structured outline for the paper parts requested:


Introduction:

Marine infrastructures such as ports, breakwaters, and seawalls have historically been the pillars supporting maritime commerce and coastal protection. However, the increasing awareness of their environmental impacts brings a new wave of challenges and opportunities in maritime engineering and coastal management. This paper aims to cast a spotlight on the complexities and consequences of marine infrastructure on ecological systems and the balancing act required to integrate human pursuits with preservation of marine ecosystems. With the growing threat of climate change, the urgency for ecologically-sound marine infrastructure has never been more pronounced. We dissect the current practices, pinpoint the gaps in ecological considerations, and argue for a concerted shift towards sustainable coastal development.

Materials and Methods:

Our approach is grounded in a comprehensive literature review, data from numerous case studies encompassing various geographic locations and ecological contexts. We scrutinize coastal development impacts on marine habitats, especially where urbanization meets the ocean. We also examine several policies and stakeholder engagement practices related to marine infrastructure across the globe. The methodologies of reviewed studies range from long-term ecological impact assessments to the examination of policy levers that can encourage more sustainable practices, as well as spatial planning and stakeholder communication effectiveness. The materials thus encompass a of empirical data, scientific reviews, and socio-political analyses, representing a holistic view of the marine infrastructure landscape.

Results and Discussion:

The indicate that coastal development overwhelmingly prioritizes engineering needs over ecological considerations, often leading to significant habitat loss and impairment of ecosystem. Our discussions reveal that while some regions have made progress in integrating ecological engineering and spatial, there exists a general lack of cohesive strategies and supportive policies globally. The analysis highlights a recurring theme of stakeholder engagement and the need for clear and actionable management objectives to adapt to increasing urbanization and climate-induced changes. Furthermore, case studies indicate that despite the presence of alternative environmentally-friendly engineering solutions, such as living shorelines, implementation often faces systemic barriers due to entrenched preferences for traditional hard infrastructure and mixed policy signals.

Comments and Personal Evaluation

Reflecting on the gathered information, it is clear that despite the technical capability to build sustainable marine infrastructure a significant gap persists in implementing these practices universally. Often, this gap is not due to a lack of knowledge or technology but rather a deficiency in policy, economics, and public will. Traditional hard-engineering solutions prevail due to established practices, perceived cost-effectiveness, resistance to change among key stakeholders. Furthermore, the emphasis on short-term gains over long-term ecological continues to thwart efforts for more sustainable practices. If the community of nations is to address these challenges effectively, it is imperative that engineers, scientists, policymakers, and community leaders collaboratively forge new pathways that prioritize not just human, ecological well-being.


While crafting this paper, ensure each follows the academic standards for writing, including proper citation of sources, detailed methodology for reproducibility, an unbiased presentation of results, and a reflective discussion on both the results and broader implications of the study.

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1 IntroductionThe ocean regulates the exchange, storage and release of carbon dioxide, controls the climate, absorbs most of the heat excess from greenhouse gas emissions (Zanna etal., 2019) in the atmosphere and the life within it produces about half of the oxygen that we breathe. The ocean has played a key role in the dynamics of our planet, in the origin and evolution of life, and today it continues to be a critical environment for life and climate control, by redistributing and absorbing heat: as much as 93% of the excess energy resulting from the increased greenhouse gas emissions has been stored by the Earth in the oceans, over the past 50 years (EMB, 2019a). The ocean is changing due to global warming, natural variations and anthropogenic pressures. Therefore, it is essential to understand these changes by monitoring and measure then to understand what the impact on our society might be in the short, medium, and long term.The First and the Second World Ocean Assessment (WOA I, 2016; WOA II, 2021) report a gradual deterioration in the health of the oceans, along with changes and losses in structure, function, and societal benefits derived from marine systems. Rapid climatic variation and multiple interacting environmental stressors are forecasted to have significant negative impacts in the coming years (IPCC, 2021; von Schuckmann etal., 2021; IPCC, 2022). As outlined in the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021-2030), science-based knowledge on global change mitigation and adaptation policies are urgently needed (IOC, 2021). These policies must rely on a good knowledge of the system and its state, and sustained by systematic ocean observation that allows scientists and decision-makers to build different scenarios on possible consequences.The European Commission, confirming its commitment towards an improved ocean governance in the recent Joint communication on the EUs International Ocean Governance agenda (2022)3, sets four key objectives including building up international ocean knowledge for evidence-based decision-making in order to pledge the protection and sustainable management of the ocean. Ocean science, observation, environmental monitoring and modelling are considered vital for evidence- based action to protect and sustainably manage the ocean; too many gaps in the knowledge of the ocean are still detected. Actions and solutions to the ocean health crisis and development of a sustainable blue economy are linked to the level of knowledge, understanding and capacity to innovate.Today more and more countries around the world regard research and innovation as a top priority for economic growth. Large-scale research facilities are crucial to the development of science, offering unique opportunities for innovation with a wide range of interactions between individual research infrastructure (RIs) and the surrounding economic and industrial environment. By their nature, RIs are a long-term national strategic investment with a broader socio-economic impact depending on the nature of a RI, the specific character of its broader innovation ecosystem, and the strategic objectives that it is pursuing (OECD, 2017).Many marine observation programmes are being implemented worldwide, such as ONC (Ocean Networks Canada)4 in Canada, OOI (Ocean Observatories Initiative)5 and IOOS (Integrated Ocean Observing System)6 in USA, ECSSOS (East China Sea Seafloor Observation System; Yu etal., 2019) in China, DONET (Dense Ocean floor Network System for Earthquakes and Tsunamis)7 in Japan, IMOS (Integrated Marine Observing System)8 in Australia, and SAEON (South African Environmental Observation Network)9 in South Africa, In Europe, several marine European RIs Consortia (ERICs; see Box 110) have been established to underpin and support European research and observation efforts (ESFRI, 2021). They aim to structure research communities and implement guidelines and best practices laid out in international frameworks of th

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ReferencesNebot N, Rosa-Jimnez C, Pi Ninot R, Perea-Medina B. Challenges for the future of ports. What can be learnt from the Spanish Mediterranean ports? Ocean and Coastal Management, 2017, 137: 165174 Google Scholar Editorial. Ocean conservation needs a spirit of compromise. Nature, 2021, 591: 346Article Google Scholar Oppenheimer M, Glavovic B C, Hinkel J, van de Wal R, Magnan A K, Abd-Elgawad A, Cai R, Cifuentes-Jara, M, Deconto R M, Ghosh T, Hay J, Isla F, Marzeion B, Meyssignac B, Sebesvari Z. Sea Level rise and implications for low-lying islands, coasts and communities. IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate. 2019Woodruff J D, Irish J L, Camargo S J. Coastal flooding by tropical cyclones and sea-level rise. Nature, 2013, 504(7478): 4452Article Google Scholar Rudolph T B, Ruckelshaus M, Swilling M, Allison E H, sterblom H, Gelcich S, Mbatha P. A transition to sustainable ocean governance. Nature Communications, 2020, 11(1): 3600Article Google Scholar Cisneros-Montemayor A M, Moreno-Bez M, Reygondeau G, Cheung W W L, Crosman K M, Gonzlez-Espinosa P C, Lam V W Y, Oyinlola M A, Singh G G, Swartz W, Zheng C, Ota Y. Enabling conditions for an equitable and sustainable blue economy. Nature, 2021, 591(7850): 396401Article Google Scholar Li B, Wu Y. On the ecological relationship between ecological conservation and green development during the 14th Five-Year Plan. Science and Technology Review, 2021, 39(3): 88101 Google Scholar Bo Y, Liu Y, Jiawei L. Manned submersibleA national weapon for deep sea scientific research and the development and utilization of marine resources. Bulletin of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 2021, 36(5): 622631 Google Scholar Global Wind Energy Council. Global Offshore Wind Report 2021. 2021Yang R, Jun L, Wang K, Wang Y. Summary of research on offshore wind power collection system. Electric Power Construction, 2021, 42(6): 105115 Google Scholar Yang N. Overview of our countrys Marine Emerging Industry Strategy. Engineering ResearchEngineering in an Interdisciplinary Perspective, 2014, 6(2): 156166 Google Scholar Climate Change Center of China Meteorological Administration. China Climate Change Blue Book 2020. Beijing: Science Press, 2020 Google Scholar Han S Z, Fan Y, Dong Y, Wu S. A study on the relationships between the wave height and the El Nio in the north area of the South China Sea. Acta Oceanologica Sinica, 2017, 36(5): 4450Article Google Scholar Kang N Y, Elsner J B. The changing validity of tropical cyclone warnings under global warming. NPJ Climate and Atmospheric Science, 2018, 1(1): 36Article Google Scholar Pryor S C, Barthelmie R J. A global assessment of extreme wind speeds for wind energy applications. Nature Energy, 2021, 6(3): 268276Article Google Scholar Shao Z X, Liang B, Li H, Wu G, Wu Z. Blended wind fields for wave modeling of tropical cyclones in the South China Sea and East China Sea. Applied Ocean Research, 2018, 71: 2033Article Google Scholar Young I R, Ribal A. Multiplatform evaluation of global trends in wind speed and wave height. Science, 2019, 364(6440): 548552Article Google Scholar Amarouche K, Akpinar A, Bachari N E I, akmak R E, Houma F. Evaluation of a high-resolution wave hindcast model SWAN for the West Mediterranean basin. Applied Ocean Research, 2019, 84: 225241Article Google Scholar Christakos K, Bjrkqvist J V, Tuomi L, Furevik B R, Breivik . Modelling wave growth in narrow fetch geometries: The white-capping and wind input formulations. Ocean Modelling (Oxford), 2021, 157: 101730Article Google Scholar Kutupolu V, akmak R E, Akpinar A, van Vledder G P. Setup and evaluation of a SWAN wind wave model for the Sea of Marmara. Ocean Engineering, 2018, 165: 450464Article Google Scholar Shirzaei M, Brgmann R. Global climate change and local land subsidence exacerbate inundation risk to the San Francisco Bay Area. Science Advances, 2018, 4(3): eaap9234Article Google Scholar Mei W, Xie S P. Intensification of landfalling typhoons over the n

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**Introducción:La población humana en la Tierra, que se estimaba en 6 mil millones en 1999, se proyecta que aumentará en un 50% en menos de 50 años (Bureau del Censo de EE.UU., 2009). Muchas de las ciudades más grandes del mundo se encuentran en zonas costeras (Timmerman & White, 1997) y se espera que más del 75% las personas vivan a menos de 100 km de una costa para 2025 – un fenómeno mundial (EEA, 2006). En 2003, el 53% de la población de los Estados Unidos vivía en los 673 condados costeros y se espera que aumente en más de 12 millones de personas para 2015 (NOAA, 2004). Las áreas costeras también están sobrecargadas por el turismo masivo. La costa mediterránea puede tener 350 millones de turistasacionales por año para 2025 (Hinrichsen, 1999). La transformación de la ciudad costera de Cancún en México en un destino turístico internacional ha resultado en que la población residente de aproximadamente 300,000 sea inundada anualmente por 2 millones de visitantes (Burke et al., 2001). Estos importantes cambios en la demografía y distribución de las poblaciones humanas han impactado severamente los paisajes costeros, que están siendo continuamente alterados por la adición de infraestructura necesaria para sostener actividades residenciales, comerciales y turísticas. Por ejemplo, en varias regiones de Italia, Francia y España, las áreas construidas en la franja costera superan el 45% de la cobertura del suelo (EEA, 2006). Sin embargo, la transformación de paisajes costeros en respuesta a la urbanización no se limita a la tierra, ya que la zona intermareal y las aguas estuarinas y marinas cercanas a la costa también se alteran cada vez más por la pérdida y fragmentación de hábitats naturales y por la proliferación de una variedad de estructuras construidas, como rompeolas, muelles, espigones y pilotes (Tabla 1).

Tabla 1. Propósitos y características de las infraestructuras urbanas comunes desplegadas en aguas cercanas a la costa. (Tipo de estructura, Acción y propósitos, Materiales utilizados, Posicionamiento/orientación respecto a la costa, Posición respecto a la superficie del mar, Exposición a las olas)

Efectos ambientales: La infraestructura marina importante puede crear beneficios económicos y sociales positivos, al habilitar el transporte y comercio y facilitar el acceso público y disfrute del ambiente marino. Al mismo tiempo, debido a la gran escala de muchos de estos proyectos, pueden haber efectos ambientales adversos significativos en el ambiente marino que necesitan ser abordados.

Área, Impacto Negativo Potencial,

  • Degradación de paisajes costeros naturales
  • Intrusión visual significativa
  • Sustitución de formas y contornos naturales con líneas duras y bordes
  • Interrupción de pat y procesos costeros naturales
  • Domesticación del paisaje costero natural
  • Daño a ecosistemas marinos
  • Pérdida directa de hábitat costero
  • Interrupción de ecosistemas sensibles y/o ecológicamente productivos y zonas de transición
  • Daño a hábitats de pájaros y peces y animales intermareales.
  • Reducción en el lavado natural, lo que potencialmente lleva a la eutrofización
  • Sombreamiento de áreas de agua resultando en la pérdida de plantas marinas a largo plazo
  • Remoción de toda la vida marina de partes del lecho del mar
  • Pérdida permanente de especies lentas en crecimiento, sensibles que son incapaces de recuperarse
  • Liberación de sedimentos en el agua marina que reduce la penetración de luz, interrumpe especies juveniles y filtradores y sofoca comunidades bentoícas en una amplia área
  • Liberación de sedimentos ricos en materia orgánica en agua marina que puede exacerbar la proliferación de algas
  • Liberación de metales, químicos, dioxinas, organoclorinos

Introduction The human population on Earth, which was estimated at 6billion in 1999, is projected to increase by 50% in less than 50years (U.S. Census Bureau 2009). Many of the largest cities in the world are located in coastal zones (Timmerman & White 1997) and more than 75% of people are expected to live within 100km of a coast by 2025 a world-wide phenomenon (EEA 2006). In 2003, 53% of the population of the United States lived in the 673 coastal counties and this is expected to increase by more than 12million people by 2015 (NOAA 2004). Coastal areas are also over-burdened by mass tourism. The Mediterranean coast may have 350million seasonal tourists per year by 2025 (Hinrichsen 1999). The transformation of the coastal town of Cancun in Mexico into an international tourist destination has resulted in the resident population of about 300000 being swamped annually by 2million visitors (Burke etal. 2001). These major changes to the demography and distribution of human populations has severely impacted coastal landscapes, which are continually being altered by the addition of the infrastructure needed to sustain residential, commercial and tourist activities. For example, in several regions of Italy, France and Spain, built-up areas in the coastal strip exceed 45% of land-cover (EEA 2006). Transformation of coastal landscapes in response to urbanization is not, however, limited to the land because the intertidal zone and nearshore estuarine and marine waters are also increasingly altered by the loss and fragmentation of natural habitats and by the proliferation of a variety of built structures, such as breakwaters, seawalls, jetties and pilings (Table1). Table 1. Purposes and characteristics of common urban infrastructures deployed in near-shore waters Type of structure Action and purposes Materials used Positioning/orientation respect to the shore Position respect to the sea surface Wave exposure Breakwaters Reduce the intensity of wave forces in inshore waters; used for protecting ports, harbours and marinas and as coastal defences Sandstone; geo-textile; granite; sandbags; concrete; wood Not connected to shore parallel or fish tail Emergent; low crested; submerged Exposed Groynes Reduce along-shore transport of sediments; used in coastal defence schemes, often in association with breakwaters Sandstone; geo-textile; granite; concrete; wood; sandbags Connected to shore perpendicular Emergent; low crested; submerged Exposed Jetties Reduce wave- and tide-generated currents; used for developing, ports, harbours, marinas and as constituents of coastal defence schemes Sandstone; geo-textile; granite; concrete; wood; sandbags Connected to shore perpendicular Emergent; low crested; submerged Exposed Seawalls Bulkheads Reduce the impact of waves on shore; used as a tool against coastal erosion and as a constituent of ports, docks and marinas Sandstone; geo-textile; granite; concrete; steel; vynil; sandbags; wood Onshore parallel on open coasts, but variable in enclosed waters Emergent Exposed to sheltered Pilings Sustain infrastructure, such as bridges, piers, docks and for the mooring of vessels Concrete; wood; fibreglass; metal Onshore to offshore Emergent Exposed to sheltered Floating docks Create boating facilities Concrete; wood; plastic fibreglass; metal Connected to shore varying orientation Emergent Sheltered Ropes-poles cages-nets Constituents of aquaculture facilities Fabric; plastic; wood; fibreglass; metal Not connected to shore varying orientation Emergent; submerged Moderately exposed to sheltered Armouring shorelines, by means of riprap revetments, seawalls or bulkheads, is a very common approach to combating erosion, especially in urban areas where there is great demand for property near the shore (Davis, Levin & Walther 2002; Living Shoreline Summit Steering Committee 2006; Airoldi & Beck 2007). A considerable proportion of the U.S. coastline is subject to erosion and has been hardened to protect against damage to i

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Environmental effects Major marine infrastructure can create positive economic and social benefits, through enabling transport and trade, and facilitating public access to, and enjoyment of, the marine environment. At the same time, because of the large scale of many of these projects, there can be significant adverse environmental effects on the marine environment which need to be addressed. Area Potential Negative Impact Degradation of natural coastal landscapes Significant visual intrusion Replacement of natural shapes and forms with hard lines and edges Disruption of natural coastal patterns and processes Domestication of the natural coastal landscape Damage to marine ecosystems Direct loss of coastal habitat Disruption of sensitive and/or ecologically productive ecosystems and transition zones Damage to habitats of birds and intertidal fish and animals. Reduction in natural flushing, potentially leading to eutrophication Shading of areas of water resulting in the longer term loss of marine plants Removal of all marine life from parts of the seabed Permanent loss of slow growing, sensitive species which are unable to recover Release of sediment into seawater which reduces light penetration, disrupts juvenile species and filter feeders, and smothers benthic communities over a wide area Release of organic-rich sediments into seawater which can exacerbate algal blooms Release of metals, chemicals, dioxins, organochlorines and PCBs into the marine environment which can impact on the health and viability of marine species (such as where dredging of contaminated sediments is undertaken) Changes to coastal processes Disruption of wave energy, currents and tidal flows Alteration of sediment transport regimes causing coastal erosion or sediment accumulation Alteration of seabed bathymetry Alteration of particle sizes entering the marine environment, making an area more muddy than previously, and therefore changing the habitat Degradation of water and sediment quality Discharge of sediment or pollutant-laden water which can cause sedimentation and contamination of the wider marine environment Increased levels of rubbish, oil and antifoul paints entering the water, through increased use of an area Disrupting the relationship of tangata whenua with the marine environment Contamination of water and sediment which can render kaimoana unsafe to eat and reduce the size of harvestable populations Loss of intertidal areas, which reduces the areas where kaimoana can be harvested Loss of access to, or destruction of, culturally important sites Degradation of marine heritage Damage to the integrity of archaeological sites, whi tapu and other sites of historical significance Loss of public access and amenity Restriction or exclusion of public access to parts of the coastal environment Loss of amenity through increased noise, light and traffic The following sections discuss the potential environmental effects in more detail. Degradation of natural coastal landscapes The placement of large structures into the marine environment, and changes to the natural form of the coastal edge through the construction of reclamations and seawalls, can have a major impact on natural coastal landscapes. Such human-made elements can create a significant visual impact (depending upon perception), replace natural rounded shapes and forms with straight lines and hard edges, and disrupt natural coastal patterns and processes. Many of the impacts are irreversible in practical terms. Large single structures, such as wharves and boat ramps, may be intrusive when seen from both the land and from the sea. They are also likely to bring with them increased activity in the form of cars, boats and people. But it is the cumulative effect of many structures along the coastline that can have the most detrimental impacts on natural coastal landscapes. Ports and marinas, in particular, often require reclamations and numerous structures to be placed within the coastal marine area.

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regulating the climate, preventing erosion, accumulating and distributing solar energy, absorbing carbon dioxide, and maintaining biological control. Human society depends on the seas for survival. Seas are essential for the economic prosperity of human society, social well-being and quality of life. We all rely on the seas, so we have an obligation to use them wisely. Oceans and seas are still perceived as the last wilderness of the world, but human influence has already reached them all, from the coasts and the sea surface to the deep sea floor. Multiple benefits and human uses of the seas are causing multiple, cumulative human pressures and related changes to oceans and seas, coastal marine habitats and marine ecosystems. Each human activity on land or at sea has direct and indirect impacts on the marine environment. It is therefore very important to understand the cumulative effects of human activities in view of natural changes in order to build a solid base for managing and safeguarding the benefits for current and future generations. The main pressures affecting European seas result from: fishing, sea floor damage, pollution by nutrient enrichment and contaminants, the spread of non-indigenous species. Marine litter and underwater noise are also of growing concern. These pressures are at the core of the MSFD but some have also been targeted by other dedicated EU policies (the Water Framework Directive, the related Habitat and Bird Directives and the common fisheries policy). The information reported under the MSFD, although incomplete, shows a low percentage of our seas where pressures are considered to be at an acceptable (good) level. Pressure sources Multiple pressures continue to be a significant presence in our seas and their combined effect is of growing concern: Fishing pressure is reducing but decades of overfishing have affected ecosystem integrity. Damage to sea floor habitats is likely to increase with growth in maritime activities. Pollution by nutrient enrichment and contaminants remains an environmental challenge. Non-indigenous species are spreading and their impacts are not fully assessed. Marine litter and underwater noise are adding pressures but are still poorly understood. Fishing pressure affects ecosystem integrity Fishing is one of the greatest pressures in the marine environment. It reduces biodiversity by targeting commercial fish and shellfish and accidentally killing invertebrates, mammals, seabirds and turtles. It also modifies the structure and functioning of the ecosystems in which fisheries are embedded. Unsustainable fishing levels and practices have greatly damaged European fish stocks. In 2013, the 88% of the assessed stocks in the Mediterranean and Black Seas were overfished. Multiple activities threaten sea floor integrity Sea floor damage mainly refers to changes in the structure and function in seabed habitats and their communities, therefore affecting sea floor integrity. It is caused by harvesting natural resources, which can be either biological (e.g. bottom-trawling) or physical (e.g. aggregates). To a lesser extent, it is also caused by energy production (e.g. oil and gas structures), coastal and port infrastructure (e.g. dredging) or telecommunications (sub-sea cables). Because these activities differ in terms of their extent, degree of impact or affected habitat types and associated communities, the overall magnitude of their impact differs. The extent of sea floor pressure in some parts of Europes seas shows that managing it will become a major challenge. For example, in the German North Sea, some areas (3x3 nautical miles) have been annually fished for up to 433 hours using large-beam trawling, even inside Marine Protected Areas. The recovery time for seabed communities affected by bottom-trawling has been estimated to be between 7.5 and 15 years after one single pass of a beam trawl. With the expected growth in maritime activities, the impact on the sea floor and its cumu

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