POPULATION DENSITY The world at the beginning of 21st century recorded the presence of over 6 billion population. The population of the world is unevenly distributed. George B. Cressey (an American geographer) commented that “Asia has many places where people are few and few place where people are very many”. This is true about the pattern of population distribution worldwide.Patterns of population distribution and density help us to understand the demographic characteristics of any area. The term population distribution refers to the way people are spaced over the earth’s surface. Broadly, 90 percent of the world population lives in about 10 percent of its land area.The 10 most populous countries of the world contribute about 60 per cent of the world’s population. Of these 10 countries, are located in Asia (World Population Review 2021) The size of a population for any species is not a static parameter. It keeps changing with time, depending on various factors including food availability, predation pressure and adverse weather. In fact, these changes in population density give us some idea of what is happening to the population – whether it is flourishing or declining. However, irrespective of the ultimate reasons, the density of a population in a given habitat during a given period fluctuates due to changes in four basic processes, two of which (natality and immigration) contribute to an increase in population density and rest two (mortality and emigration) contribute to a decrease. (i) Natality refers to the number of births during a given period in the population that are added to the initial density. (ii) Immigration is the number of individuals of the same species that have come into the habitat from elsewhere during the time period under consideration. 169 Effects of Urban Life (iii) Mortality is the number of deaths in the population during a given period. (iv) Emigrationis the number of individuals of the population who left the habitat and gone elsewhere during the time period under consideration. 8.1.1 Concept of Population Density Each unit of land has limited capacity to support people living on it. Hence, it is necessary to understand the ratio between the numbers of people to the size of land. This ratio is the density of population. It is usually measured in persons per square kilometre. The formula for calculating population density is, Density of Population = Population/Area There are different methods to measure population density based on the kind of information:

1. Arithmetic density: The overall number of inhabitants/ land area (calculated in square miles or kilometres).
2. Agricultural Density: The overall agrarian population/area of productive farming land.
3. Physiological Density: The overall population/area of productive farming land.
4. Urban Density: Population peopling a metropolitan region overall area of metropolitan region.
5. Residential Density: Population inhabiting a metropolitan region/area of housing space.
6. Ecological Optimum: Population density which is backed by the natural reserves.

Factors Affecting Population Density Populations are unevenly distributed across the world and much dependent on variation in physical environment. Hence, it is necessary for demographers to understand how and where populations are distributed. Present spatial distribution as well as its projections for the future is integral to a demographer’s work. Through understanding of certain patterns, and the factors affecting population density and population size significantly, it is possible to make projections of the growth (or possible decline) in the global population, and its spatial distribution. It will then become possible for policymakers to frame appropriate policies and strategies to protect the environment, plan for sustainable development, and prepare for modifications that accompany changes in population characteristics. Adverse physical conditions and lack of sufficient livelihood opportunities are primarily responsible for discouraging inhabitation of certain areas. There are four broadly grouped factors affecting population density: 8.1.2.1 Physical Factors Humans makes the choice of moulding space according to their cultural values. There are variations in habitations in response to environmental stimuli. They relate to the natural environment through settlements, which are physical embodiments of an ideal environment. Climate is one of the most important natural conditions. It determines the nature of the flora of the region and influences agriculture. Climate also determines the type of animals that are associated with the region. Humans seek favourable climatic conditions in the places they want to settle in. The climatic belts are the principal areas of most of the human activity. It is evident from the world’s population distribution that the highly populated countries are mostly located in the tropical regions.A warm, soothing and comfortable climate attracts people. Regions with such climates provide favourable conditions for a wide range of fauna to thrive, supporting the life systems in the place. Agriculture and animal husbandry make it possible to provide food for large populations. On the other hand, places with extreme climatic conditions are usually scarcely populated because it is difficult to sustain human life in such places. Countries in the temperate regions are also well populated. The regions are colder than the tropical regions but are hotter than the polar zones. The polar zones of the Arctic and Sub-Arctic regions remain the least populated of all. The extremely low temperature is not favourable for habitation. Vegetation is scarce. Comparatively long cold winters and very short summers make living difficult. Terrain is another important physical factor that affects population density. Navigable areas are more populated than rough ones. Mountains are less preferred because of lack of arable land. In addition, the cost of transportation, construction and agriculture are considerably higher in such places. In general, high altitudes also impose a physiologicalload on humans’ capacity to adapt. This is because of reduced atmospheric pressure and low oxygen content. Higher altitudes, therefore, do not favour population and growth. Low lying plains and coastal areas are more favoured areas for human settlement. The Himalayas are thinly populated, the Ganges valley is one of the densely populated areas of the world. Coastal regions have the advantage of ocean-going trade and transportation and thus, the major cities of the world are mostly located in the coastal areas. Water is essential for human survival. The ancient civilizations of the world flourished near rivers and the coastal areas. The Nile, Amazon, and Ganges river systems supported rich civilizations on their banks. Adequate rainfall favours vegetation and agriculture which in turn, determine a place’s suitability for habitation. Because of lack of water, vast expanses of deserts are uninhabited. For the same reason, there is less population on the rain-shadow side of a hill or mountain; however, the leeward side is often densely populated. Thus, population tends to be concentrated in the well-watered river valleys and coastal plains. Soil quality influences the density and distribution of the population. A substantial percentage of populations earn their livelihood from agriculture which depends on the quality of the soil. Food crops are grown on the soil, thus, is one of the most important raw materials required by population. The alluvial regions, deltas and the coastal regions of India support high population densities. On the other hand, mountainous regions, where soil erosion is a problem, such as the Terai region of Uttarakhand, or the sandy soils of the desert of Rajasthan, cannot support dense populations. However, scientific agricultural practices, with the aid of technology, have succeeded in converting lowyield soils to better quality ones. In the past, degradation or overutilization of soil led to the disappearance of flourishing civilizations. Vast reserves of mineral resources encouraged the establishment of industries, which attracted settlements. In India, the Chhotanagpur plateau is an area rich in mineral resources. The higher population densities in the Chhota Nagpur Plateau of Jharkhand and in the adjoining areas of Orissa are largely due to the availability of minerals. Location of a place Effects of Urban Life is another significant factor. Proximity to major towns and cities favours concentration of population. Generally, staying within the city limits increases living costs. The city’s periphery or nearby towns provide affordable housing facilities. Cheap and reliable transportation provide convenient means of commuting. Natural disastersalso affect population density.Frequent storms, earthquakes, floods, wild fires discourage formation of settlements as people migrate to safer places. There are many examples of destruction of settlements due to the natural disasters. Malpa, a village in Pithoragarh District of Uttarakhand was wiped away on 18th August, 2018 because of a catastrophic landslide. 8.1.2.2 Socioeconomic Factors The choice of settlement is generally based on natural processes. However, with time, humans have been able to adjust and control the natural processes to some extent. Thus, the factors influencing the choice of a place for settling no longer depends entirely on natural conditions. As needs changed with the evolution of human society, social and economic perspectives gained primacy. Economic activity is an indicator of employment opportunities. People in the rural areas are largely dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. If the land fails to support the rural population economically, or urban areas come up with more lucrative opportunities, people may choose to migrate to cities. Concentration of population in urban areas is an outcome of diverse economic activities and livelihood options offered by the cities. Therefore, population density in the towns and cities tends to be higher than in rural areas, and will continue to rise day by day. Industries are a large job market, and have attracted cheap labour for several decades. Inevitably, cities provide diverse livelihood opportunities in both occupational and personal domains. Industries, for example, coal mining industries, hydroelectric power stations etc. in largely uninhabited areas attract migrants to these places, resulting in increase in population as well as population density. An example in this category is Dubai (UAE)

• due to variedjob opportunities and tourism industry, a large migrant population have settled in a city that was otherwise unpopulated, making the place one of the fastest growing cities in the world. Social Organization of newly migrated people encourages community growth, participation and cultural expansion. People moving out of their native places tend to settle in such a community where the language, culture, food habits etc. are alike. 8.1.2.3 Demographic Factors The demographic factors are the characteristics of the population. These factors have considerable influence on population distribution and settlement patterns. These include fertility and mortality trends and migration. Fertility and mortality together influence the natural increase in a region. Variation in the differential growth rates lead to changes in population density and distribution. Migration has deep influence on population distribution. The push factors, or negative circumstances, at the place of origin tend to motivate people to leave their native places to newer areas. Better opportunities in distant lands also encourage migration. People may choose to move due to land scarcity, shortage of work in current place of residence, insufficient wages or salaries, inadequate medical facilities and education, etc. Expectations of a better standard of living are often the main factors that drive rural to urban migration. The migration process allows redistribution of population,increasingthe population density. Natural increase is the net outcome of fertility and mortality in a region. If in a region, the fertility level is high, the population of that place tends to increase. In such situations, mortality brings stability because of deaths. Epidemics and disease have always significantly influenced mortality levels. In earlier times, high occurrence of disease resulted in more deaths. To offset the loss, a high level of fertility was maintained. With medical advances, many diseases could be cured and the death rate fell sharply. In effect, the population grew. However, this created the problems of high population density and pressure on limited resources. With the introduction of contraceptives and with several family planning options available, birth rate began to go down. 8.1.2.4 Political Factors War, political disturbance, conflict, and weak administration negatively affect population distribution.War and political conflicts take a great toll on human lives. Death rates are high, and people are forced to move out in search of safety. Mortality rates peak and the out-migration dominate. Safer locations experience a sizeable population growth because of the in-flow of migrants. This is also the situation in regions near the political boundaries of countries that do not have peaceful relations. Even if there is no conflict, the fear of one compels people to move, making these areas the least populated ones. Political unrest and discrimination are detrimental to population growth. Clashes between different political parties orpeople with different religious beliefs have often resulted in a reduction of population in the affected area. Before settling in a new place permanently, migrant population looks for a place that not only provides economic opportunities but also provides safe and healthy environment for wholesome living. A politically unstable region is unable to provide both these conditions and hence it discourages not only the in- flow of migrant population but also the already residing population which might be forced to leave the region in search of peaceful locations for settlement. Discrimination faced by migrants because of race, language, food, culture etc., discourages in-migration. This has reduced the population growth on one hand and newer settlements on the other. Policies encouraging migration have often led to population growth in the destination region. International labour movements take place where rules governing cross-border migration are lenient. Migration helps in the redistribution of population. Policies that promote reduction in fertility levels, banning of infanticide, etc. also influence the population growth in a place. For example, China’s strict enforcement of one-child policy succeeded in curbing fertility levels and controlling population.

Effects of Population Density on Animals The growth rate of a population at time is defined as the change in numbers per unit population at that time period. The rate usually changes with time as the population increases or decreases. The growth rate of animal populations is a function of the population density. In most mathematical models of populations whose changes resemble those of actual populations, the growth rate is a decreasing function of density, meaning that as the population increases the growth rate decreases and vice versa. Records of actual populations can be used to test the relation between growth rate and density by calculating correlation coefficients for these two characteristics. The methods of doing this are described and the limitations on the data are explained. The records Effects of Urban Life of 111 different populations representing 71 species were analyzed by these methods. Of the 71 species, 7 were eliminated from further analysis because their census records were not significantly different from a series of random numbers, 47 had correlation coefficients that were negative and significantly different from zero, 16 had coefficients not significantly different from zero (all but one of these estimated coefficients were negative), and one, the world’s human population, had a positive coefficient significantly different from zero. There were no differences between taxonomic groups (insects other invertebrates, fish, birds, mammals). The primary conclusion is that in most animal species a population’s growth rate is a decreasing function of density. This explains the relative stability of animal populations, which never continue to increase at rates their fertility would allow, and rarely decrease to extinction. Tentative conclusions are presented regarding the processes regulating population numbers. Populations of herbivorous insects at low and moderate levels are regulated by disease, parasites, and predators causing mortality that is an increasing function of density. Favourable conditions may allow an increase in insect numbers so rapid that the population temporarily escapes regulation by its enemies. Non-territorial species of vertebrates are normally controlled by predation and when that fails by competition; in both cases juvenile individuals are most affected. In territorial vertebrates competition for suitable territories determines the size of the breeding population. Populations of vertebrate species (expecting man) are in general regulated by the production of adult individuals being a decreasing function of population density.

EFFECTS OF URBAN LIFE ON CITY DWELLERS The effect of urban life in India has been marked by regional and interstate diversities, large scale rural to urban migration, insufficient infrastructural facilities, growth of slums and other allied problems. The environment - behaviour interaction has been explained by various theories and the effects are well explained by the theories as follows: Adaptation level approacheshold that individual becomes familiarized to a positive equal of ecological stimulation. The shared incidence of too much or too slight inspiration is anprominence of stimulation, excess or under load and stress. Stimulation approaches theorizes the bodily setting as a basis of sensual material that is vital to our welfare; multifaceted sensual material that comes from structures, streets, other persons and so on. Behaviour setting theorystates that there are reliable agreed designs of conduct which is in dissimilar locations. In every similar state there are recurring designs of behaviour which are predictable. Integral theoriesare efforts to look at the filled difficulty of ordinary person environment effects. This has two sub methods. Firstly, the interactionist method, which suggests that the person and the setting are divisible objects but one inspires the other, they are repeatedly engaged. Some of the important effects of intensive urban growth in the Indian context are as follows: 8.2.1 Housing and Slums There is acute shortage of housing in urban areas and much of the available accommodation is qualitatively sub-standard. This problem has tended to worsen over years owing to rapid increase in population, fast rate of urbanization and proportionately inadequate addition to the residential provisions.Rents are disproportionately high. Private developers and colonizers find little profit in building houses in cities for the poor and the lower middle class, and they concentrate in meeting the housing needs of the rich as it is gainful.With large scale migration to urban areas, many find slums as the only option left, despite all its disadvantages. Slums are characterised by substandard housing, overcrowding, lack of proper ventilation, sanitation, electric, roads, cooking arrangements and drinking water facilities. Basic hygiene seems drastically poor giving rise to diseases, environmental pollution, demoralisation and many social tensions. The aim of the eleventh Sustainable Development Goals is to make “cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable’. The first target of the goal aims at “access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic facilities and upgrade slums by 2030”. India’s slum population standing at nearly 35%, (World Bank Data, 2018).As per Census, 2011, percentage of slum dwellers to total population in the cities is highest in Jabalpur (44.71%), Greater Visakhapatnam (44.6%), Greater Mumbai (41.84%), Meerut (41.74%), and Raipur (39.58%). 8.2.2 Over Crowding In major cities in India like Bombay, Kolkata, Pune and Kanpur, 85% to 90% of the households lives in one- or two- room set- ups (Handbook of Urban Statistics, 2019). In somehomes, five to six persons live in one room. Over-crowding encourages deviant behaviour, spreads diseases and hinders mental well- being. One effect of dense urban living is people’s apathy and indifference.Once people adapt to poverty, attitudes and behaviours that initially developed in response to economic deprivation are passed on to subsequent generations through socialization. Oscar Lewis’ ‘Culture of Poverty’ (1966) was an attempt to develop a model of the behaviour of the poor in a variety of cultural settings. It is a distinct way of life that develops among the lowest stratum in capitalistic societies in response to economic deprivation and inequality. One of the crucial elements of the culture of poverty is that the slum dwellers are disengaged and not integrated to the major institutions of the society. 8.2.3 Water supply, Drainage and Sanitation: Uninterrupted 24x7 water supply is a scarce scenario in India. Intermittent supply results in a vacuum being created in empty water lines which often suck in pollutants through leaking joints. Many small towns have no main water supply at all and are dependent on the wells. Drainage situation is equally bad. Because of the non-existence of a drainage system, large pools of stagnant water can be seen in the cities even during summer.There is total lack of motivation to tackle the basic sanitation needs of the cities. The spread of slums in congested urban areas and lack of civic sense among the dwellersfurther adds to the growing mound of filth and diseases. Attitudes towards cleanliness and community awareness about basic hygiene are extremely poor in most of the areas. 8.2.4 Transportation and Traffic: Absence of planned and adequate arrangements for traffic and transport is another problem in urban areas in India. Majority of people use buses and tempos in comparison to rail. The increasing number of two wheelers and four wheelers make the traffic problem worse. Moreover, the number of buses plying the metropolitan cities is not adequate and commuters have to spend long hours to travel. Such huge traffic and vehicles also aid to substantial rise in air pollution. 8.2.5 Power Shortage: Insufficient power supply is another disadvantageous aspect of many urban areas in India. The use of electrical gadgets has increased in cites, and establishment of new industries and the expansion of the old ones has also increased dependence on electricity. Conflict over power supply between two states often creates severe power crisis for people in the city. 8.2.6 Pollution: Several cities discharge 40 to 60 percent of their entire sewage and untreated industrial wasteinto the nearby rivers. Urban industry pollutes the atmosphere with smoke and toxic gases from chimneys. All these increase chances of diseases among the people living in the urban centres.According to UNICEF, lakhs of urban children die or suffer from diarrhoea, tetanus, measles etc. because of poor sanitary conditions and water contamination. Newer techniques for waste management, new technology for garbagedisposal and fundamental change in the municipal infrastructure and land-use planning are emergently needed. All the above-mentioned urban problems indicate issues with migration and overurbanization, industrial growth and lack of management, administrative issues and lack of proper timely urban planning. Systematic development of urban centres and creating job opportunities, regional planning along with city planning, encouraging industries to move to backward, less populatedareasand adopting a pragmatic Housing Policy etc. are the need of the hour.

GROWTH OF SLUMS AND RURAL TO URBAN MIGRATION Slums are dilapidated and thickly populated or overcrowded areas with lack of adequate public utilities, yet their existence in the city does serve a purpose, especially for the urban poor and migrants coming for some job opportunities in the city. It is in slums where economically backward people like industrial workers, casual labourers, Effects of Urban Life hawkers, vegetable-sellers and several other unorganized sectors live over years and generations. These slums play a very vital role in orienting new migrants to the urban environment by providing social comfort and support and also integrate themselves with the mainstream of city life. The figures relating to urban population living in slums are not accurately available, however, it is commonly accepted that nearly one-fifth of the total urban population in India lies in slums. The Task Force on Housing and Urban Development, appointed by the Planning Commission of India, estimated nearly 23 per cent or over 3 crore 60 lakh people are the urban slum-dwellers in India.The proportion of the slum-dwellers increase with the size of the urban population. Cities with less than one lakh population have 17.5% cities with the population between one lakh and ten lakhs have 21.5%, and cities having more than ten lakhs of population have 35.5% slum-dwellers in the total population. There are higher estimates in the metropolitan cities in India (NITI Aayog, 2021). In India, the slums are usually classified into three categories: (1) The old building which have become decayed in course of time; (2) The slums which are characterised by poor and inadequate housing conditions, constructed legally around mills and factories, (3) The slums which are illegally come up in different parts of the city through unauthorised occupancy of open land.

Characteristics of Slums The major characteristics of slums, common across cities, are enumerated below:

1. Dilapidated and poor houses in slums are made of scrap materials. These are often raised on unauthorised land.
2. High population density and housing leads to over-crowding and congestion
3. Lack of public facilities, such as, drainage, sanitation, water taps, electricity, health services etc.
4. The slum-dwellers are functionally integrated with the mainstream city life, but have high incidence of crime, juvenile delinquency, prostitution, drug use, beggary, illegitimacy, illicit etc. in most of the cases.
5. Slums have a culture of their own, as Lewis (1966) has referred to as the ‘culture of poverty’.
6. Largely slums are subject to neglect and apathy of the larger community. These areas are markedly considered inferior, making slums subject of social isolation. This compels the slum-dwellers to survive in such compromising conditions with almost no effort towards improvement.

Migration Migration is a global phenomenon, with movements both within nations and internationally across borders.Migrants make up near about one-seventh of the world’s population.Population diversity in most developed countries can be attributed to international migration, whereas in developing nations, it is mostly internal migration that contributes to this diversity. Migration to “global cities” – those that are advanced in terms of job opportunities, economic strength, political and cultural hubs of international significance – is increasing, with migrants. Migration can be classified in several ways(UN DESA, 2016; McKinsey Global Institute, 2016):  By political boundaries – Based on political limits and the boundaries crossed, such as districts, counties, state borders and international boundaries. Internal migration – Migration occurring within a country by crossing political boundaries, either within a state or between states, it may be urban to rural, urban to urban, rural to rural, or rural to urban. International migration – Migration occurring across country boundaries. Such migrants are known as immigrants (coming into a foreign country) and emigrants (leaving their own country). This also includes continent-to-continent migration.  By movement patterns – Based on classifying people according to their social status, travel points and periodicity.  Step migration – Migration initiating from a small settlement and moving to a larger one in the urban hierarchy over the years. (UN DESA, 2016; McKinsey Global Institute, 2016).

ENVIRONMENTAL SOLUTIONS TO URBAN POPULATION AND SUSTAINABILITY OF CITIES It is often said that the battle for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) will be won or lost in cities, which is why SDG 11 – making cities inclusive, safe and sustainable – is so important. By 2050, more than two thirds of the world population are projected to live in urban areas, and most of this urban growth will take place in lower and lower-middle income countries. But densely built-up urban spaces tend to come with challenges of their own. Therefore, there is a need to start ensuring today that these urban areas will be inclusive, safe, sustainable and resilient. 8.4.1 Environmental Solutions to Urban Problems People modify environment as per own requirement. Population and pollution related problems in cities toll huge number of environmental resources destroyed brutally. As discussed, development of slums, overcrowding, scarcity of pure water, inadequate sanitation facilities, crisis of uninterrupted power supply are consequences of mismanaged and unplanned use of resources. Different measures at the administrative level have already prevailed and various awareness programmes have also been organized over years. However, it is not only about the administrative policies and measures that can single handedly solve the issues, but it is at the hand of citizens who can change their attitude towards utilization of resources in more and more judicious way. Optimal utilization of both environmental resources may not wash out all problems but can show a path towards betterment. Celebration of environmental days, weeks are of no use until the behaviour changes. People need to be more cautious about waste management, rain water harvesting, proper use of tap water, following traffic rules, regular pollution check etc. Various programmes have been organized by educational institutions where students voluntarily participate to generate mass awareness. Creating a better future for them is also the responsibility of adults. Therefore, irrespective of age and gender, people need to be more aware and follow prevailing rules; only then administrative efforts towards implementation of environmental laws and policies would succeed.

8.4.2 Sustainability of Cities This section concerns the social legislation relating to urban land and housing that are essential for sustainability of cities. Measures are needed to combat crises and for sustainability of cities and also for sustainable development of a nation in changing environmental and demographic characteristics. The Constitution gives the fundamental right of the freedom of movement to every citizen of India, but does not guarantee the right of housing to either the urban-dwellers or the village people. The Constitution says that the responsibility of urban development and related welfare programmes has been assigned to the State Governments. The social legislation governing rent and sale of land and houses include the following two important acts, namely, Rent Control Act (RCA), 1948, and Urban Land Ceiling and Regulation Act (ULCRA), 1976 8.4.2.1 The Rent Control Act, 1948 The Rent Control Act was enacted with a view to control and regulate the rent of the houses. It was first enacted in the then Bombay State, in 1948, and later on in several other states. The Rent Control Act also protects the tenants from the atrocities of the house-owner, especially in the sense that the owner of a house can neither force the tenant to vacate house, nor can he raise the rent of the house at his own will. Further, the Rent Control Act also imposes the responsibility of repairs of the house on the owner rather than on the tenant living in it.Systematic studies evaluating the impact of the Rent Control Act have revealed that the Act has not been able to bring about a solution to the problem of urban housing in the desired direction. KiranWadhava’s (2002) study reveals that the said Act has hardly been able to make any noticeable progress in solving the problem of urban housing. In fact, there have been some latent consequences of this Act. The owners are now not eager to rent out the house, as it will never come back in their possession due to the conditions of the Rent Control Act. Similarly, now people do not like to build houses with a view to earn rent. These issues ultimately add to the scarcity of houses. It is also observed that the owners hardly show any interest torepair houses which have already been rented out, simply because all such expenses are finally going to be a burden on them alone, with faint possibility of raising the rent. Owing to such apathetic attitude of the owners towards timely repairs and renovations, a large number of buildings in cities have deteriorated and become dangerous for living. The ill-effects of the Rent Control Act are not systematically recognised and in order to put a curb on such effects, the Ministry of Urban Development has taken some serious steps. In 1987, The National Commission on Urbanisation was appointed under the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India. In the interim report, the National Commission on Urbanisation made several recommendations relating to the amendments in the terms and conditions of the existing Rent Control Act relating (1) the continuation of the protection of the interests of the existing tenants (2) the inclusion of the possibility of raising rent (3) the separation of the rules the regulations of renting houses for commercial purposes from houses to be rented for residential purposes (4) the provisions of providing incentives to build new houses, etc. It is believed that the inclusion of these amendments will certainly lessen the adverse effects of the existing Rent Control Act. 8.4.2.2 Urban Land Ceiling and Regulation Act, 1976 The second important step relating to the management of followingthree fundamental objectives: a) Redistribution of land b) Prevention of speculation in land c) Regulation of construction on vacant land Under the provisions of this Act, the excess land, i.e., land excluding the prescribed size of the available plot, can be procured by the local authorities or the State Government for wider public interests. Usually, the excess land under this Act is procured for the construction of houses for the urban poor and the low-income groups. Moreover, this Act imposes restrictions on the sale of excess land so as to curb speculation in urban land.Critics have pointed out that despite the existence of this Act, the prices of land in every city have reached far beyond the capacity of common-man. Moreover, the land procured for construction of houses for the urban poor and other public utilities is also negligible in size. In several cases, the owners of excess land have been successfully escaping the demands of the Land Ceiling Act through unjust practices.

8.4.3 Programmes of Slum Clearance and Construction of New Houses In the face of rapid urban growth, a large section of urban population is living in slums and suffering from acute shortage of houses, water-supply, sanitation and other public facilities. These urban problems have assumed massive proportion, warranting social legislation and special attention in our national planning. Following from these efforts, one of the significantprogrammes is the slum clearance scheme and programme of construction of new houses for the urban poor and the low-income groups. Under this scheme, low-cost houses, equipped with water-closet, water-tap, sanitation and drainage facilities are made available to the poor people, who can afford to pay a token amount as rent from their small earnings. Moreover, under the scheme of slum clearance, an entire area inhabited by economically and socially weaker sections, is provided with these common utilities to be shared by all. These programmes under the slum clearance scheme are subsidised to provide assistance to the State Governments for construction of one crore and 40 lakh new houses at the rate of Rs.5000 per house for the benefit of the urban poor and the low- and middle-income groups. In addition, the State Governments and the local bodies of the cities also provide necessary funds for execution of such projects. It should, however, be noted that the voluntary agencies have still lagged behind in taking up the activities of slum clearance and construction of houses for the poor people (Press Information Bureau. Government of India, Ministry Effects of Urban Life of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, 2012). The following schemes have been executed in several cities with financial and other support from the state governments and local bodies for the construction of new houses: a) In 1952, a scheme for the construction of houses for the industrial workers came into existence. b) A scheme was introduced in 1954 for the construction of houses for the lowincome groups. c) Since the implementation of the Second Five Year Plan (1956), the scheme of slum clearance and improvement came into existence on a regular basis. d) The Life Insurance Corporation of India started giving loans since the Second Five Year Plan to the middle-income groups for the construction of houses. e) Since the Fifth Five Year Plan, the programme of building houses for the higherincome groups were taken on hand with the objective that profit earned through such projects will be diverted for the construction of houses for the urban poor and the low-income groups. Special instructions were issued to the Housing Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) in this respect. 8.4.3.1 National Housing Bank Systematic studies have revealed that most of the advantages of these schemes have been taken away by the middle- and high-income groups. The plight of the urban-poor has more or less remained the same.One of the greatest obstacles in effective implementation of the slum-clearance programme has been lack of adequate funds. The issue received significant attention in the Seventh Five Year Plan. It led to the establishment of a National Housing Bank (NHB) with an assistance of Rs.100 crores from the Central government. It is proposed that the objectives of theNational Housing Bank will be as follows:  To provide a national body for financing the programmes only for the construction of houses  To raise the sources for procuring finance for the construction of houses and make effective use of all such sources  To raise financial institutions at local and regional levels for advancing loans for construction of houses and institutions giving loans for other purposes  To establish meaningful links between financial institutions advancing loans for construction of houses and institutions giving loans for other purposes 8.4.3.2 Rajiv Awas Yojana/ Slum Free India Rajiv Awas Yojana is being implemented by the Ministry of Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation in partnership with the communities, urban local bodies, state and central governments. It aims for a slum-free India where the slum dwellers will get the house ownership and have access basic amenities like water and electricity. 8.4.3.3 Sponge Cities Mission With rapid urbanization, many cities in India witness floods and water logging during the monsoon months, for instance, Mumbai, Delhi, Gurgaon, Bangalore, to name a few. Thus, to manage urban flooding in metro cities, the cities will be designed (a sponge city) in a way that will passively absorb and use the clean rainwater through ecologically friendly ways like, rain water harvesting, creating rooftop gardens, rain gardens, green space and blue spaces (ponds and lakes). All these efforts are made with a hope that conditions of the slum-dwellers and the urban dwellers can be suitably improved so that they can also lead a fuller urban life and keeping in perspective the environmental, cultural, financial and administrative sustainability of the cities.

FIRST IMPRESSION: HISTORY OF THE “ROLE OF ENTRY” IN ARCHITECTURE The process of creating architectural space is synonymous to defining or enclosing built environment. The natural world and the human-made world (such as a building or a temple etc.) expresses the basis of human arrival and departure. The “entrance” is the central point which is of immediate importance and intense scrutiny. It is the noticeable and critical part of the physical space and building which has an impact on the architectural composition of which it is simultaneously a functional, emotional, and aesthetic part. Well-designed buildings with an impactful entrance can invite, orient visitors, restrict trespassers, prevent accidents, save energy, enhance positivity, represent owner’s value, offer a viewpoint, and present an artistic taste. But then again, a bad entrance can destroy many other aspects of the building. For example, careless designs such as repetition of the same entrance gives an impression of ordinary appearance. So, an architect must be aware of many things while designing an entrance. Some of theperspective to keep in mind while designing the entrancesare mentioned below :

1. Appearance Appearance of the entry is important as it affects the whole design of the building and physical space. When a utilitarian function is considered, an everyday or ordinary entrance is created. However, temples and corporate buildings gives importance to the entry point as it is the most attractive, and major feature of the building. It is the transfer point between the inside and outside. Thus, it is important to integrate the entry to the whole because overlooking a building’s structural or aesthetic integrity can create a banal or ordinary looking entrance which impacts the human use of that physical space and building.
2. The Proportion and Scale Dimensions Entrances define people’s impression and orientation towards the buildings. The entrance of the building should focus on the aesthetic, appeal, safety, cost, maintenance, and accessibility. So, the design of the entrance requires organisation of the above-mentioned conflicting interest.In terms of aesthetics scale of an entry point of the building, it can be an area of possible arguments, as it should be attractive but also for human usage. For example, a person looking at the building evaluates the size, requirements of doors, safety point and the aesthetic value. A person faraway from and perhaps unfamiliar with a building should also be able to identify its entrance and find it safe and attractive. Thus, many criteria such as safety, appeal, relative scale of people, number of people using the entrance, and the scale of the building are all important considerations point of an entrance. The relationships of scale to a building can make an entrance important and visible. A badly selected scale of an entrance disturbs the quality, appeal, and value of the entire building as well as the quantity of its use.
3. Accessibility The visibility and accessibility of an entrance impacts the user as it may distract them from the usefulness and impression of the building. The first impression and value of the building is recognised while entering the building. So, when we enter the building many parts such as plaza, stairs, organisation of sitting, bridge, or even pots/sculpture announce the accessibility of that building. For example, the waiting area or lounge area in the building within the view of the entrance function as a connecting space between the entrance and the building. The relative importance of these elements may vary with different building types. So, a separate stair for people with disability before entering the building point towards the accessibility of the building. Good design of the entry sequence is crucial to solve various needs of the people, resulting in increasing the accessibility of various people using the building. Thus, all of the above-mentioned points are considered by architects and designers who are aware of both aesthetic and functional considerations of the building. Building and its elements conveys meaning, both aesthetical and functional, so that a person can comprehend it while using the building. However, people do not realize while attributing meaning to the building elements, as that of the architect who creates misunderstanding regarding the building. Thus, it is very hard to design an entrance which satisfies, appeals and provides security as well. The important thing is how the meaning of the building itself can be expressed and easily understood by people using the physical space.

THE REFLECTION OF TRADITION AND CULTURE THROUGH ENTRANCES Buildings and their elements express the traditions and culture of societies all over the world. But nothing is certain as change, as traditions and cultures are changing so is the architecture of that period. Thus, architecture becomes a gesture of a whole society. It is the duty of the designers to study the changes in the building of the past as well as the building of today to observe the changes in competence, impression and aesthetic value. Building reflects the need, thoughts and the ideals of people of their time, they reveal the tradition, trends and reflect upon the characteristics of people living in that physical space. Consequently, the study of many aspects of building such as that of the entrance, which is the first impression of the building is important as it reflects the art and culture which is intertwined in a complicated system of symbolic implication. During the third millennium in India, there was a great splendour of civilisation with signs of detailed and thoroughly maintained planning. The grid planning gave indication of a division into neighbourhood in accordance with the productive specialisation of the inhabitants, alongside the interpretation of the distance between home and workplace. Planned functionalism and a sense of collective utility defined the concept of the city. Unlike the modern multi-storey buildings in India, the houses in ancient times had only one story or two with open courtyards, windows and doors. The entrances were placed on streets that were considered least important, which resulted in uninterested walls lined along primary roads/streets creating privacy and hidden entrances. Meaning was derived in a different way from the sacred monuments of Indian architecture, from that of the western world. The basic grid pattern combined with symbolic geometrical figures were the fundamental theme of Indian architecture which had facades along the main street and the buildings and were defined by big entrances. A kudu which is the horseshoe arch depicted in Figure 9.1 served as a frame for the entrance. The doors were sometimes rectangular, but most often they were enclosed in arches (see Figure 9.2). It became one of the most prevalent motifs in Indian architecture. Several famous stupas were built in the second and first century. They were of several types with different forms and sizes such as such as stambas (isolated pillars), chaityas (sanctuaries), and Viharas (monasteries). In order to protect and orient the stupa, it was surrounded by a vedeka (fence) with open toranas (gates) at the four maindirections north, south, east, and west. The stupa at Sanchi (Figure 9.3) was originally surroundedby a railing with four gateways built of wood, but the railing was later replaced by asimilar structure in stone. This was done to provide a suitable ground for religious ceremony where each gate consisted of two square vertical posts withbuiltin horizontal bars. The gates of stupas were carved in the form of femalefigures or animals (usually lions and elephants), which usually led to a focus on imagistic overexpressive function and a more static and pure forms of earlier carvings. The Muslim conquerors occupied Northern India and Islamic architecture developed in that part during the 11th century. They built several mosques on Islamic tradition with tombs constructed in cubic and octagonal shapes, and palaces decorated with ceramic tiles inspired by Persian architecture. Taj mahal is an example of such a beautiful architecture where doorways developed from the original horseshoe arch frame to a pointed arch. The largest archway is in the centre and performed the important function of the building’s main entrance. Make this into points.

THE STUDY OF MEANING IN ARCHITECTUREREPRESENTATIONAL AND RESPONSIVE MEANING The architect tries to instil meaning not only through the building but also through different elements of the building and architectural symbols. The architect or designers try to serve two meaning through building that are representational meaning and responsive meaning. The representational meaning is anything that is represented in human organism as a concept or an idea. For example, a rectangular object is usually recognised as a door. The responsive meaning refers to the internal responses to the already internal representations which can be affective, evaluative, or perspective in nature. They are basically thoughts of contempt, disgust or love regarding the value of represented environment or ideas concerning what should be done about the environment. The responsive and representational meanings are related and usually the responsive meaning depends on the representational meaning. They both are useful in predicting human behaviour and the architectural form usually is helpful, as it suggests how people will react to their designs. The architectural forms present themselves to viewers without acting as signs or anysort of symbols, which might suggest a meaning. But usually,people predict or recognise these forms on their past experiences and background, which will differ from that of the designer or architects. Thus, the architects and designers are careful as they create an impact through their design. While the architect may intend to evoke people’s emotion or reaction through a big and attractive entrance building but some people might attend to other elements or features such as an outstanding shape and form or the colour and texture of the building instead.People can judge the characteristics of the building as well as revealthe architect’s psychological make-up, or personality through the various elements in the building. In addition, the elements and features of the building reflect the attitude towards the societies as well. But the relationship works both ways as since society also reacts and shape the attitude of the architect and/or designer. When representation is formed it could excite, please, or disgust the views. The responsive meaning is usually formed after viewing a form which produces an internal response concerning our representation. A colourful building has the ability to attract viewers and excite them, so that they enter the building, walk closer to the building, or walk through the building. The responsive meaning is the immediate reaction or emotions that humans have towards the architectural form. When people first encounter an architectural form such as a water park, amusement park or eating joints with attractive symbols, they might be excited, happy and thrilled. After these emotions, then they bring values, criteria, or attitudes to bear on the representation. The reflections or perspective while they observe a building determine their own mind regarding if it isexciting,boring, pleasant, disgusting, ordinary or interesting. Lastly, after the representation has been perceived, and evaluated, the next behavioural response is to decide what action to take. This behavioural response is most significant to architects,as they foresee that their buildings will be used for the purpose they intended. Architects are also concerned with the expressive qualities that an architectural form reflect. Expressive quality denotes “a property of shape evoking human response”. The human response towards an architectural form is usually to a totality, an experienceof the whole. It is the direct experiences without being critical, judgemental and recording the visual shapes and visual organisations of architectural forms, without any biases. Gestalt psychologist have mentioned that expressive qualities relate to configurations in our experience. Architects and designers have the ability to change the expressive quality without changing the structure. For example, if two building of the same size, shape, material and structure is presented in front of viewers but one is black, and the other is white. Then in that case, the whole property of the object is affected by the colour change. Thus, the human response is altered by architects without changing the main structure. The different colours evoke different visual experiences, as they have very differentexpressive qualities. Unfortunately, nowadays the modern or multi-story, corporate building, parks, hospital, shelters, rehabilitation centres/building etc.has little or no meaning for people. Some building donot represent the activities and has no relation to outerform, making it difficult to anticipate or even decipher the form’s intent. This leads to isolation, powerlessness, and a sense of helplessness. Thus, a feeling of being connected can be employed by depicting forms and meaning through structure. Modern architecture such as the high-rise buildings and multistorey buildings have consequences, as they have a negative psychological impact on humans. They cause dissatisfaction, stress, behaviour problems, poor social relations, reduce helplessness and hinder child development. Gupta (2019) mentions some of the fears and anxiety provoking thoughts of residents living in high rise buildings:

1. The tragedy of people falling and jumping from the building which causes fear and nightmares.
2. The fear of being trapped inside the building during a dire such as an earthquake or a fire.
3. The fear of the building falling during an earthquake.
4. The fear of the building being attacked.
5. The feeling of having no privacy because of the sheer number of people living in the building, which means living amongst strangers which increases the fear of crime, less social support, and the absence of community in the midst of many.
6. The sheer number of people living in the building also increases the chances of becoming ill from a communicable disease generated by others. Air and touch borne flu, pandemic like COVID-19, chickenpox, etc. spread more easily when people share the same hallway, lift, stairs, door handles and elevator buttons. Gupta (2009) posits that even though some of the fear and anxiety provoking thoughts can be realistic because so many people live together in the building, but high-rise buildings have positive outcomes too. Tall building has smaller footprints than low risings buildings and they occupy less land area, so residents have more space for parking, green space etc. Their usual central location is an advantage for those who desire it, and these buildings offer a great view to residents and relative urban privacy. Residents living in the upper reaches have less noise pollution from outside and breather clearer air. The high population density may promote better social interaction and the residents/neighbours offers greater choice of friends and acquaintances for social support. The outcome of living in such a building also depends on various reasons (such as location, neighbourhood,population density, and surrounding area) and nonbuilding factors, including characteristics, features, qualities of the residents themselves, and the surrounding physical context (services and transportation facilities etc). These factors moderate the relation between living in high-rise and outcomes of living in low rise or a bungalow. For example: controlled and guarded entrance reduces crime and the fear of crime in the building as compared to the single-family resident. Thus, the high rise/multi-story buildings have both negative and positive effects, and this has been explained in Box 9.1.

THE EFFECT OF ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN ON PATIENTS OF MENTAL HEALTH The external environment plays a crucial role for human growth and development as it determines the way people begin to understand and interact with the external world. Studies have mentioned that the physical environment has a direct effect on individual’s psychological and physiological health. Thus, understanding the aspects of design and architecture are beneficial and detrimental to humans as it is crucial for mental wellbeing and physical health. These designs are important as it improves in reducing patients’ levels of stress and enhancing their recovery. Historically, in the 19th century in the United States, design and architecture once was thoughtfully considered as a means of promoting mental wellness and psychological well-being for people who were dealing with mental health issues. This idea was born out of the philosophy that changing the patients’ external environment leads to better health and outcomes. Stressful environment such as places with loud noises, lack of privacy, lack of social support, confusing layout, and lack of daylight and no access to nature can have detrimental health outcomes. Whereas implementingand designing the physical space with sunlight, lesser noise, security, communal spaces, art spaces all have a positive impact on mental health. Moreover, the design and architecture of the physical space goes beyond the physical architecture and into the space which brings calmness and meets the needs of the people. The physical space and environment should bring into the equation the human interaction, so that it meets the human need of interpersonal interaction. Dr. Thomas Story Kirkbride, American psychiatrist, was one of the first who was known for his influential idea that design and architecture can create a calm, stress relieving, andhealing environment for those suffering from mental illnesses. The external environment such as proper light, nature, and purposeful work and social atmosphere instills hope of getting better and cured from the psychological disorder, which eventually leads to mental wellbeing. Dr Kirkbride created a model where he envisioned a therapeutic environment with garden, proper sunlight, grandiose architecture, fountains, and lush landscaping. The hospital was set on a large land on the outskirts of the city with land for farming with gardens with proper security. The symmetrical wings from the administrative building allows for an abundance of light from the large windows and proper air ventilation. The model achieved great success with a recovery rate of 70- 75% but the Kirkbride plan failed due to overcrowding and financial problems. The Kirkbride institution eventually held triple the number of patients than it was originally designed for which led to decrease of adequate care, lack of privacy and overcrowding. Even though the Kirkbride model disintegrated due to financial reasons but the optimistic and moral treatment with thoughtful architectural design cured a large number of patients. But in the 20th century, the shift towards the pessimistic custodial treatment model dismissed the idea that ‘insanity’ can be treated. Patients were held indefinitelyin institutions which led toisolation, punishments, and oftenabandoned and neglected, and this resulted in a negative public perception of the asylums, and mental-health care in general.Thus, the transition from institutionalized care began to slowly shift towards deinstitutionalization with the development of psychiatric medicines as treatment for severe mental illnesses which was resulting in changing public perceptions of the asylum and mental health care. This idea was challenged by the Community Mental Health Centers Act of 1963 which led to the rise of community mental health care facilities, outpatient facilities, and informal support networks which believed that community care would be more compassionate, supportive, therapeutic, and cost-effective than hospital care. If adequate community care is provided to people such as access to outpatient treatment, support, and access to hospital care, unnecessary incarceration and stigmatization can be avoided. Thus, lessons from the past to be avoided, so that mental health care facility designs can be built accordingly to shift towards designing better spaces as a necessary aspect for effective care. As poorly designed spaces negatively impact mental health treatment. Managing and eliminating stressors, which are linked to poor health outcomes, is the goal of supportive healthcare design. The presence of loud noises, loss of control, a lack of social support, confusing wayfinding, glaring lights, and lack of access to nature or other distractions in healthcare facilities results in stress for patients. Thus, the importance of design choices for employee is important, so that they feel comfortable and in control of work. A well-designed architectural building is beneficial to the clients they serve, as well to promote a less stressful work environment to prevent high staff turnover.Connellan et al., (2013) found common themes regarding the intersection of architecture, design, and positive mental health outcomes:

1. Safety, security and privacyA key finding in the literature is on the importance of security and safety implemented within the design of the facility and therapeutic space. Architectural design for safety involves easily observable patientliving in a non-crowded space or living areas by staff member. An increase in population density in the facility or space has the tendency to increase the stress level and negatively correlates with perceived privacy and control. The feeling of losing control over the environment and increasing stress violence are factors associated with overcrowded in-patient ward. Thus, increased feelings of privacy and control over personal space and environment can be incorporated into the design. So, architects and designers should be mindful and maintain dialogue with patients and mental health professionals to indicate the use of the intended space, make areas distinct through colors, materials and better lighting, and lastly define a space that provides different tactile experiences and dedicated areas for social interactions.
2. Noise and Environmental StressorsNoise and unwanted sound in a mental health facility, hospital, etc. can act as an environmental stressor which has the potential to cause psychological harm. The architects and designers should be mindful of creating these spaces meant for recoveryas excess of unwanted noise, both visual and auditory adds levels of stress and impacts sleep. Moreover, the built environment plays a major role as it becomes more demanding and plays a role in mental health, specially in urban areas. The built environment in urban areas, as opposed to rural areas, is designed to elicit responses, and alter behavior (such as that of billboards and flashing lights for example), and that can create a feeling that one’s actions are not determined by their own. Studies have argued that there is a strong relationship between the environment and the brain, where the actions and thoughts of individuals are not the result of cognitive planning, but rather automatic responses that are mainly triggered by the environment. Thus, this creates an onslaught of demands from the environment and the ability to inhibit those demands decreases, and people are less likely to be able to cope. Golembiewski (2010) also forwarded the significance of architectural design in psychiatric care facilities and suggested that minor design choices can have a great consequence and lead to better health outcomes. Golembiewski (2010) suggested understanding the environment from a salutogenic perspective, that is when the internal and external environment remain predictable, comprehensible, manageable, and meaningful. Thus, using Antonovsky’ ssalutogenic theory as a tool for the design choices of mental health care facilities can create a more calming, stress relieving and healing environment for patients. So, a sense of coherence can be used to alleviate mental health symptoms so that people feel in control of their environment and have the opportunity to grow and develop in that setting. Thus, in order to create a sense of coherence and be mindful of patients needs the architect or designers shouldconsider the environment’s aesthetics, order, safety needs, and spaces for visitors, and the opportunity for patients to have their personal belongings. This model helps to understand the relationship between the built environment and the patients needand it is transactional and not fixed.
3. Space and layout Just like finding one’s way in life or direction, finding one’s way through the physical environment or space is important for autonomy and the feeling of being self-reliant. Studies have argued that space differentiated by color and light are easily navigated with prominent landmarks, which leads to an improvement of the experience of healthcare environments.Color helps in navigation as it makes the space more friendly, calming, and welcoming. So, color design can be implanted as a means of promoting better wayfinding. However, understanding what sort of space design and layout that works for each population is important for maintaining a sense of autonomy, efficiency, and supportive health care facilities.
4. NatureProviding access to nature (garden, plants, flowers etc.) positively affects the mental and physical health of the client. There is a psychological and physiological need for nature, which results in lower levels of anxiety, blood pressure, and heart rate in the people. Nutsford et al. (2013) conducted a study which measured the proximity to urban green spaces and its effect on mental health, and concluded that there is a decrease in anxiety, panic and mood disorders with a decreased distance of usable green space.
5. Light and Atmosphere The impact of natural light and atmosphere has been studied in clinical studies and studies conducted on cancer patients. The study observed the impact on multisensory environment and patients’ level of anxiety and stated that the room with natural lights, music, aromas, taste, and tactile sensations is thought to evoke a sense of rest and recuperation. There is still scope and needs for more research on this area and how effective this type of environment would be for different populations, including those with dementia or individuals on the autism spectrum. To understand the affect of atmosphere, Radley and Taylor (2003) studied the effects of the physical setting, that is the hospital wardon patients’ recovery through the medium of photography. They concluded that most of the patients captured their bed indicating it as a place of comfort and discomfort. The photography technique helped in visual communication for experiences that is challenging to verbalize. The technique was helpful for the patients, as the photographs with their visual commentary together became extremely significant. They not only described the object or spaces but their positive and negative associations in the hospital to explain their lived experiences ofpain, discomfort, happiness, and sad moments. Lastly,Connellan et al. (2013) mentioned that with architecture and design, the human need for interactions and community is significant for therapeutic process. Architecture on its own does not support or generate positive mental health outcomes but it is often in combination with a supportive social environment as well. Thus, people in the environment are just as important as the physical structures.Interestingly, recent research point towards the role of art therapy and open art studios(with studio space, setting and characteristics), as it helps in releasingstress and calming the patients. It provides energy from the people working in that space. More information on this is elaborated in Box 9.2.

Explain the five aspects of design and architecture that contribute to positive mental health outcomes.

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN PROCESS BASED ON HUMAN BEHAVIOUR As we have already discussed that humans spend large part of their lives at designed spaces whether for work, residential settings, commercial settings than natural settings, which has an impact on their behaviour. The buildings regulate the course of our lives such as a comfortable space satisfies one’s physical need and improves our mood. Thus, the structure of the building and its feature impact human mind. So, an architect uses this strategy tolook whether the paths are already being formed by behaviour, and then enact them, rather than creating idealized path structure that ignores history, culture, tradition and human nature. This is called “pave the cow path”, that is identifying the desired lines and then making paths and lastly formalising it so that it is easier for people to use it and follow it. Architectural spaces, shapes and qualities inspire human experience and behaviour as they have the power to control the spaces of the built environment. Studies have mentioned that mostly people preferred positive spaces because it led to high level of social interaction than spaces that encourage movement rather than dwelling in it.Positive architectural space is designed to help and encourage a specific goal, experience and purpose. The space should be suitable for the people using it and should matches the requirement of the user for the activity that they are using the physical space for. The architect should know the purpose, specifics, goal and the activities that might take place in that setting so that they can enhance it accordingly. For instance, the below Figures (9.4 and 9.5) are examples of positive and negative architectural spaces. Designers and architect create more than a building as they promise to make the building attractive and functional so that they can change behaviour and attitude of people. Their behaviour and techniques of design range form high level aspirational strategies to specific tactics. They want to create a space which has the potential of involvement, interaction and knowledge sharing, basically which fulfils the basic human need.The sociological needs, psychological state and physiological determinants are three important criteria which affects one’s attitude towards the surrounding environment and determine the human behaviour. So, sociological human need that is the social interaction that can be improved among the users through designers’perception to the interior spaces they exist in. First, maintaining privacy by protecting the individual’s physical, visual and sound transmission. So, for example in offices spaces using partitions, providing private spaces to people and planning according to space functions and human needs. Second, interaction levels affect privacy as people cross boundaries with others by coming in contact within their intimate and personal space.Thus, interpersonal cooperation is important which can be achieved by providing a space for interaction and achieving group task. This particular space can expand and providevarious other purposes, such as a social space for different social activities. Third,territoriality is the control over space by an individual or a group. If privacy is achieved, then territoriality takes place. Lastly, crowding happens due to ineffective use of personal, social and territoriality, which reflects poor external social contact. People respond differently to crowding. So, if the activity is fun such as a concert, then crowding is considered attractive, but crowding can be irritating and frustrating if it appears in a confining way. The architect also tries to understand the psychological human response to the environment which are complicated. It is divided into three psychological states that are perception, cognition and spatial behaviour. The perception is observers process towards their environment through different senses of vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch, so that the observer can gain information about the place. Secondly, the cognition takes place after gaining this sensory information and then mentally processes the information which includes processes such as thinking activities, memorising or analysing the information. Lastly, the spatial behaviour means reaction and responses to the environment information depending on the perception and cognition. By using the secondary processes that involve motivation, effect and development and the psychological stages, the architect and designers create environmental stimulation. The environmental expectation with the gained experience and interaction with the environment are considered by the interior designers to create physical space. Sensation act as an integration point between the environment expectation and human perception of space. Lastly, the physical needs of humans while planning the physical space are extremely important such as functionality, ergonomics, life safety, and health concerns. The designer must create his vision for the project while keeping in mind the activity taking place in the space and the reaction of the user as space is linked with behaviour patterns of the people. The functional efficiency occurs when interiors environment responds to the basic human functional needs such as vision, hearing, stability and mobility. These needs relate to the human body requirements while supporting the psychological needs in the interior space planning, well-being and productivity. Various studies mention that productivity increases with environment improvement while following some specific environmental conditions that help in raising users’ competence related to his/ her needs:

1. Suitable lightings for the task being performed.
2. Facilities matching the need of the user’s expectation and comprehension such as desk, table, lights, charging points, windows etc.
3. Proper human mobility and attention to the handicapped/disabled users which removes accessibility barriers.
4. Productivity range of motion that allow users to feel at ease and comfortable while using the physical space.
5. A suitable auditory environment that allows ease of communication, with limited noise annoyance and avoids distraction. The ergonomic design helps the user in achieving his needs in the environment. Ergonomics strongly recognizes that the environment does influences and impacts human behaviour, so they use this combination of data to create designs which are both humanistic and functional. This includes design aspects like space, furnishings, and environmental variables such as temperature, sound, humidity, and ventilation requirements to be sensibly endorsed to fulfil the purpose of the human body. The goal is to plan for the intended activities, furnishings, and finishes that are convenient to user expectations. Lastly, the life safety and health are another aspect is the priority of the architect and designers. They provide individual with anappropriate facilitywith an assurance of acceptable travel path to the user of that space,and a clear indication of a safe exit meaning. It is important to design the guiding mechanisms that are visible and clearly stated as people do not have the opportunity to decipher codes which may show safe passage at panic or emergency. It is necessary to control the visual environment as humans have a natural response towards danger sensing which transforms to fighting or escaping. So, the application of the design concept and the overall planning along with the user is important. Safety and health aspects are more effective in a space where the needs meet the desired activities and task, resulting in reducing the physical harm. Health aspects means to be aware of selection materials like paints, adhesives, smokes alarms that may cause headache. Some of the architects and designers cannot control these aspects because health and safety aspects are less noticeable to people than life safety. However, designers must be conscious of material selections as it impacts on occupant’s health. Make this into points.

GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE Global warming and climate change refer to an increase in average global temperatures. These phenomenahave been occurring since the beginning, as there have been periods of heating and cooling of Earth’s atmosphere. It can be described as a struggle between human progress (in the form of industrialization, population increase, and economic growth) and nature, which will not only affected the atmosphere and the sea but also the geology of the Earth. As predicted by the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), Earth’s mean temperature has already increased by 0.6°C in the 20th century (IPCC 2013). The emissions of carbon dioxide due to the excessive use of fossil energy will change the climate andwill result in increased temperature up to 3°C. It might be accompanied by an increase of extreme climatic events, and alteration of global precipitation patterns. This will cause huge changes to the civilization, but the impact on the society is extremely uncertain. The term global warming can be traced back to at least the mid-1970s and can be defined as an “increase in the temperature of the troposphere, which has occurred in the past as a result of natural processes but is now believed to be accelerating as a result of increased emissions of greenhouse gases associated with the burning of fossil fuels”(Schneider,1989).Even though several greenhouse gases occur naturally but their atmospheric concentration has increased in the last few years. There are several reasons for the same some natural and some produced by the humans. Natural phenomenon that contributes for global warming are volcano, ocean current, earth’s orbital change and solar variations. The human causes are deforestation, increase on the use of fossil fuel, mining etc. Figure 10.1 mentions the framework regarding the causes and consequences of global warming. The recent human-caused-emission of greenhouse gases are the highest in the history, which will have a widespread impact on the human and natural environment. The UNFCCC defines greenhouse gases as “those gaseous elements of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that absorb and re-emit infrared radiation.” Anthropogenic emissions create four principal greenhouse gases that are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and the halocarbons (a group of gases containing fluorine, chlorine and bromine), which accumulate in the atmosphere, causing concentrations to increase with time.The atmospheric concentrations of all these gases have significantly increased since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in 1750 and their concentrations have increased to anextraordinarylevel in at least the last 800,000 years. Weldon (2011)articulated the theory of global warming by stating thathumans are burning too much fossil fuel which is producing vast amount of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide and many other atmospheric gases (some natural and some man-made) act like a one-way heat filter which allows sunlight to pass freely from outer space into our atmosphere but prevents heat from the planet from reradiating freely into space.Thus, without the heat-filtering processes of these gases, the Earth’s average temperature would be approximately 30-degree cooler. Scientists believe that global warming will change the environment in several ways:

1. Cold seasons (or Winter seasons) might become shorter and warm ones to become longer.
2. Northern latitudes are likely to have wetter autumns and winters, and drier springs and summers.
3. More rainfalls are predicted in the tropics, and sub-tropical areas could become drier.
4. A shift in the climate zones around the world which might bring a change in the frequency and intensity of floods, droughts, typhoons, tornados and hurricanes in many areas.
5. Rise in seas levels might cause more hardship and losses

Debates about Global Warming and Climate Change Due to the lack of scientific evidence, many people did not believe that global warming was taking place. Today, global warming is an issue that does not involve much controversy in terms of its existence. However, the argument over the causes, impact, and responsibility of global warming is a topic of conversation and research. The most reliable data to prove that global warming is taking place was found deep inside the glaciers, in form if ice core samples. Scientists could drill out core samples from glaciers and determine the greenhouse gas concentrations in Earth’s atmospherefrom 400,000 years in the past (Caire, 2007). Their data reveal that the level of carbon dioxide has been steadily rising for the last 15,000 years, and most dramatically since the Industrial Revolution first began pumping large quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere (Caire,2007). Willi Dansgaard, Claude Lorius, and Hans Oeschger are three scientists who have documented more than 150,000 years of global climate change by analysing glacial ice core samples and were awarded the Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement in 1996. They mentioned that analysing the ice was like sticking a thermometer backwards in time as the composition of ice itself tells us about the temperature and atmospheric conditions at the time the ice was formed. The idea of examining Earth’s climate history from ice core samples was first, proposed in the early 1950’s which was followed by the first deep ice core drilling project which took place in 1966 in Greenland. Drilling and analysing the ice core sample is a complex process which involves a lot of planning, people and preparation time. Data from ice core samples is still being collected and analysed in Greenland and Antarctica by a group of multinational scientists. Evidence from these ice core samples also show a linear trend in increased greenhouse gas emissions which parallels the worldwide population growth. If population growth is a contributing factor for the rise in greenhouse gases emission, then humans are partially responsible for global warming. This is until scientists can better understand Earth’s natural changes in its climate cycle, thus, till then, it will be unclear to what degree human action has accelerated global warming. Scientists have mentioned that Earth naturally goes through cycles of warming and cooling, correlated by carbon dioxide (CO2) levels rising and falling. Thus, there have been a steady 20 percent rise and fall of CO2 over time from a mean of 240 parts per million (ppm). But in the present times, all indicators are going off the scale as the current greenhouse gases concentrations are higher than at any time in the last 400,000 years, according to data accumulated from the Vostok ice core in Antarctica (Caire, 2007). Furthermore, recent data has shown that carbon dioxide emissions have risen 30% since 1900, which is a 10% increase over Earth’s natural variations in the levels of carbon dioxide. Possibly even more shocking is that until 1999, two gigatons of carbon dioxide have been released into the atmosphere annually. Furthermore, since 2000, six gigatons have been added to the atmosphere. Thus, according to that there is a three-fold increase in carbon dioxide emissions from 1999 to 2000, which might result indestructive consequences in the form of recent extreme weather patterns (Tol et al., 2000). Some of the consequences that we are already witnessing due to global warming are ice melting at the earth’s pole, sea level rise has become faster over the years, and precipitation has increased across the globe. Some of the species such as butterflies, foxes, plants have moved farther from the north to higher cooler areas due to the warm weather. Climate change is primarily a scientific topic which poses a high-risk to humans and social systems, and probably one of the most controversial one because of its inherent scientific uncertainty (Björnberg, et al., 2017). The theory of climate change assumes that an increase in global mean temperature (defined as global warming) may influence the climatic conditions of the world. Climate change is more than global warming because the rise in average temperature is only one indicator of broader changes such as extreme temperatures, drought, flooding, storms, rising sea levels, impacts on food production, and infectious diseases. Even though, people often use the term climate change instead of global warming due to the rise of earth’s average temperature. But climate change is different in different areas as it is not merely an increase in temperature but also includes the frequency and severity of droughts, floods, hurricanes and blizzards. It is a broader term in the sense that it includes weather changes and outcomes to be promoted as resulting from humanity’s impact upon the global climate. So, climate change is more than just the changes in the weather. It is defined IPCC AR4, (2007)by “any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity.” Climate change has also been defined as “any natural or stimulated changes in climate, either globally or in a particular area” (Parmesan &Yohe, 2003). According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change [UNFCCC], climate change is defined as “a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the structure of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.” Changes in climate refer to changes in means and inconsistency for example on the temperature, rainfall, and wind which can happen over the course of months to millions of years. So, change in climate refers to changes in atmosphere (gaseous envelope surrounding the earth), hydrosphere (water on the surface of the earth), cryosphere (snow, ice, and permafrost on and beneath the surface of the earth and ocean), land surface, and biosphere (ecosystems and organisms living in the atmosphere, land, and oceans). Nevertheless, the recent and accelerating warming of the earth’s climate is largely attributable to human activity, and its influence are mediated by psychological and social processes, and it can be restricted by human activity.According to the World Health Organization, climate change is estimated to cause over 150,000 deaths annually, and is likely to cause, as it is predicted, approximately 250,000 additional deaths per year between 2030 and 2050 from malnutrition, malaria, diarrhoea, and heat stress. If global warming and climate change continues at its current pace, the following effects could occur later this century(Figure 10.2 also elaborates on the impact of global warming).

1. Sea levels are estimated to rise between 7 and 23 inches (18 and 59 centimetres) by the end of the century andthe prolonged melting at the poles could add between 4 and 8 inches (10 to 20 centimetres).
2. Hurricanes and other storms are likely to become stronger.
3. Species that depend on one another might not be able to survive or may get disturbed. For example, plants could bloom earlier than their pollinating insects become active.
4. Floods and droughts will become more common. Rainfall in Ethiopia, where droughts are already common, could decline by 10 percent over the next 50 years.
5. Less fresh water will be available. For example: IfQuelccaya ice cap in Peru continues to melt at its current rate, it will be gone by 2100, leaving thousands of people who rely on it for drinking water and electricity without a source of either.
6. Chances of becoming ill will increase as some diseases might spread, such as malaria carried by mosquitoes.
7. Ecosystems will get affected. As some species will move farther north and otherspecies mightnot be able to move so theycould become extinct. Figure 10.2 explainsthat climate change and global warming have long term consequences. They are a result of several changes in human activities that accelerated with industrialization in the 19th Century and increased exponentially since. The environmental psychologist and scholars expanded their research on environmental degradation in 1980s to adapt and confront climate change and global warming impacts on ecosystem and humans.Thus, several themes in environmental psychology have emerged that are relevant to climate change and global warming such as:

1. A concern in how environmental psychology can inform and aid public policy.
2. Attention to technology and digital means both as a contributor to environmental problems and to improve sustainability.
3. A tendency to value and benefit from multi-disciplinary associations and theories from other fields.
4. Expansion of interests to include multiple levels of analyses from small scale studies of individuals and small groups to larger scale issues of sustainability, issues facing nonhuman biological world, and large sale ecological problems such as the impending world water crises, food crisis etc. Furthermore, experts from different fields of psychology and other disciples can contribute to finding solutions to many problems associated with climate change. This includes talking about issues such as:

1. Coping with perceived threats of climate change to trauma stemming from experience of climate-related weather disasters.
2. Experts in community, business, and organizational behaviour can address changes necessary at the systemic and human behavioural levels as businesses and non-profit organizations adapt to a changing environment.
3. To provide an understanding of how people across the lifespan can adapt to climate change.
4. To design effective methods to integrate an environmental focus into psychology and other curricula.
5. Experts in international and peace psychology can intervene as intergroup conflicts develop due to decreasing resources and forced migrations associated with a changing climate. Moreover, youth should also be engaged in climate change education. They should also be at the forefront of this change as they are vulnerable and will bear the impacts of climate change over their lifetime. The next section elaborates on educating youth and children on global warming and climate change. What are the debated points?

Climate Change Education for Youth Recent studies have mentioned that children are under-informed and poorly trained regarding topics such as climate change and global warming(Mah et al., 2020). Thus, advocating children and youth from a young age will help children develop a sense of collective competence through the promotion of youth engagement. Involving youth in research is a critical component as their efforts will enhance the quality of data that is used to inform climate change policies and plans. Furthermore, it will empower children to take actions that relate to their future lives. The literature on youth climate change education primarily investigates the impact of educational programming on youths’ knowledge. The scholars believe that making sense of climate change is the crucial and the first step to changing behaviour. However, the knowledge regarding climate change does not necessarily translate into personal connection or action. It is important to connect the cause and consequences with the personal lives of people so that they understand the impact. Thus, facilitating youths’understanding of the connections between climate change concepts and issues beyond the classroom is necessary for attitude and behaviour change. So, for example, if students are encouraged to think about topics such as climate change in relation with their own lives their concern for the environment grows. Therefore, increased knowledge and connection to climate change can lead to youths’ increased enthusiasm and eagerness to engage in pro-environmental behaviours as well as motivate students to act towards change. There are several benefits to youth from engaging creatively and meaningfully with topics such as climate change:

1. It improves their reasoning and discussion skills. Discussion among students from different cultural background and values lead to different viewpoints which might provide richer and more productive climate change discussions.
2. It increases students’ engagement in topics related to sustainability such as climate change, global warming, deforestation etc, which further stimulates creatively, increases engagement and diverse problem-solving.
3. Sustainability-oriented education aims to cultivate youths’ ‘future’s thinking,’ by promoting learners to consider the multiple outcomes of their own decisions and actions, and to visualize and reflect upon the potential elements that make up their own future lives.
4. It inspires students and children that they have the power to save the environment, and thus this gives them the power to modify their future.

Education for Action Educational programs that move from transmissive learning to transformational learning involve youth in various forms of climate change action related to their education. These sorts of programs can typically happen outside the formal classroom or informal settings. Climate change-related educational initiatives seek to engage the ‘whole person’ by emphasizing knowledge, values, and action that have been advocated under a variety of terms, including environmental education for empowerment and education for sustainability. The goals of action based educational initiatives are that “youthare considered agents of change within their families and communities”. They are environmentally empowered and are confident in their own abilities to make a difference in the world by making lifestyle choices and influencing other. They act as catalyst of change in their families and communities and influence others with their engagement with the environment. Thus, involving youth and children in climate change education might make them feel capable of taking action to minimize harm and believe in the transformation of their environments. A conceptual model is presented in Figure 10.3 that explainshow children and youth engagement with climate change. Trott (2019) introduced transformative, arts-based, and participatory approaches as potential avenues for facilitating children’s constructive climate change engagement. The educational approaches and literature focus on effective instructional strategies to strengthen children and youth’s learning. Children and youth learn about climate change but very rarely they are given opportunities to act on this information. Thus, to go beyond scientific facts, alternative educational paradigms have arisen that move “from transmissive towards transformative learning” which emphasize the social, ethical, and political dimensions of climate change, while encouraging diverse participation and social change action. The art-based methods have been used as a medium through which to foster the civic participation of children and young people in their communities. Art is usually a technique to raise awareness of social issues, resist and rewrite dominant cultural narratives, and facilitate social change action. Even though art-based methods are limited but they engage young children and youth in creative, participatory processes (e.g., visual art; video production; performance), which can eventually serve to empower their agency and to raise awareness of climate change with decision-makers and advocate changes on behalf of their communities. Art encourages meaning-making and self-expression around issues of identity, community, and place so this medium helps to identify placebased sustainable solutions important to children and their local communities. Children and youth’s Enjoyment Sense of agency Awareness Personal connection Affective Enable -ment Art based engagement Transformative Pedagogy AgenticAction Cognitive Engagement Behavioural Enactment Concern, Motivation Youth-led planning Participatory process Children and youth’s Engagement Action based methods is acting on learned concepts which can be an empowering experience for children and youth. So, children engaging with the community to address a local issue or the simple act of imagining preferable futures for their community. To facilitate children’s and youth’s constructive climate change engagement, participatory methods are best as they help them to bring out their potential and empower them. This method helps to shift the power from adults to children and youth, and they act as key stakeholders and raise their voices. The adults, policy makers help children and youthto come together as they investigate a problematic situation in order to improve conditions and they voice and control things that will ultimately impact them.

Urban Cities and Climate Change Cities are vulnerable to climate change, but they are also uniquely positioned to lead the way in both mitigating and adapting to it. Urban cities and population have a responsibility to transition toward a more sustainable future as they are a source of most of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions. Cities are currently home to over half of the global population. In developed regions that figure is even larger, with nearly 80 percent of population residing in cities which makes it more important to adopt sustainable development plans to be able to keep city growth within ecological limits. Temperature in the urban cities rises and it tends to become hotter than their surrounding suburbs and rural areas because of heat absorption and retention. This happens because of the impervious surfaces (such as concrete, and dense populations), the reduced amount of vegetation and impermeable surfaces. This results in what is known as the ‘urban heat island’ effect, which is a warming effect in the atmosphere surrounding urbanized areas. Urban heat island causes the temperature to increase, resulting in frequent heat waves and making the cities more vulnerable to climate change. Thus, people should obtain better knowledge about the degree to which the urban heat island is influencing their city, which mighthelp city planners in responding more appropriately to the situation. Furthermore, climate change might increase the risks to health directly from increased injuries and mortality from extreme weather events such as water-borne diseases after flooding, hurricanes, extreme rainfall events. Moreover, the food-borne diseases due to the contact of food to higher temperatures causing bacterial growth, increased mortality from more intense and more frequent heat waves worsened by the urban heat island effect and forced migrations as city dwellers seek shelter from increased conflict over resources. Moreover, respiratory diseases and illnesses from poor air quality and increased allergies related to changes in temperature, precipitation, and the build-up of smog from commercial and industrial practices. Thus, doctors, physicians and members of the healthcare system should be aware of the increased risks to human health in cities and predict climate change related consequences. They can incorporate this information into healthcare systems to reduce serious health impacts and make recommendations for better understanding of the possible health risks in their area. City infrastructure should be assessed for increased extreme weather events such as storms, flooding, hurricanes, and high winds. The increased frequency of these events will have direct impacts on availability of food and water, human health, and facility operations. Drought conditions aggravated by climate change will exert added stress on cities, especially those who import their water or depend on remote sources to meet their demands. Moreover, as urbanization continues, difficult decisions in urban planning and development will be driven by resource availability and demand for basic resources. Therefore, healthcare system must adapt by anticipating needs and adopting practices that incorporate changing environmental conditions and the associated increased risks. Even though its difficult to anticipate a natural hazard but when disasters occur in the human-built environment that the consequences can be drastic. However, as urbanization and the built environment continues to expand, vulnerability and risk exposure will increase in urban areas. The combination of larger and denser populations with increased infrastructure such as buildings and roads mean that when a disaster does strike in cities it has a greater capacity to cause more damage, putting important facilities out of operation. Therefore, it is crucial to human health and wellbeing that disaster reduction plans include the management of these negative consequences of climate change. To address these problems, three pillars of sustainability has beenillustrated in Figure10.4.Adapted from Wilkson and Yeneken (2000),this venn diagram highlights the importance of not just the environment, but also the economy and society. Each of the pillar is desirable to achieve sustainability.

KEY FACTORS FOR SUSTAINABILITY Climate change and increased climate variability will have many negative consequences in the urban environment, but city’s management plays a big role in determining its ability to respond to climate change.Thus, it is important to addresswater and energy related supplies because without them the cities are forced to import it from different parts of the world which increase carbon footprint. So, to do that:

1. There is a need for the support of water conservation policy and regulations at all levels to enforce behavioural changes.
2. Sustainable water management can be organized at the city level around three major water uses that are drinking water, wastewater, and stormwater systems.
3. Conservation programs must be put in place at local and state level to assign more accountability.
4. Other mitigation efforts in cities might also include water reclamation and recycling or increasing the efficiency of water supply. Another development priority for cities can be to focus on the public transportation sector. Cities make for the most efficient transportation centres because denser populations allow for closer proximity of housing, retail space and employment, reducing travelling distances and supporting alternative travel options. People living in cities can benefit from public transportation in ways that those in rural areas cannot because the necessary infrastructure is already in place. Public transport is a more sustainable means of transportation due to its ability to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, carbon footprint through the conservation of energy. Another alternative transportation options are walking or bicycling for better physical health, for people who donot want to own their own private vehicle and due to the increasing fuel prices and various other reasons. Accessibility to alternative transportation not only improves public health, but can also addresses air pollution, increasing housing values, contribute to a sense of place and community, promote economic development in the area, and save household money. It can be difficult to persuade people to change their attitude and behavioural patterns towards public transportation over personal automobiles. However, incentives and rewards can be put in place to further develop the transportation sector in a city, which in turn will encourage this behavioural change. For instance,carpooling and sharing platforms reduce greenhouse gas emissions and reduce the cost of travelling as compared to a personal vehicle. Urban waste management is another area which can help protect people and environment from the negative effects associated with waste. Discarded materials that do not seem harmful can potentially become hazardous if not managed properly. So, to run efficiently and sustainably, few steps in the cycle that are: waste generation, collection and disposal must be addressed. People need to focus on effectively managing waste and reducing overall outputs of trash so that it will lead to fewer trips to the landfill and help in saving fuel and emissions. Prevention is better so less trash generation means less energy expenditures towards waste collection, transport, and distribution. So, some points to keep in mind for waste management are:
5. The state and government agencies need to enforce regulations for guiding waste management and educating people about the proper waste management.
6. The government needs to analyse the city’s waste consumption pattern and invest their money in more sustainable materials sourced from less carbon intensive companies and processes.
7. Small businesses, store owners, and individuals can all make commitments in reducing their dependence on material goods, reducing their demand for them, and making informed consumer decisions. The key to good urban waste management is providing waste collection services in a consistent and ethical way. Thus, the government and local agencies need to be tasked with providing services for waste collection and recycling. Moreover, focusing on green infrastructure that is planting more trees, has been gaining a lot of importance since the last few decades. More information is provided in Box10.1 regarding green infrastructure in cities and corporates.

CARBON FOOTPRINT The word carbon footprint can simply be understood as the amount of carbon dioxide emitted to the atmosphere by the anthropogenic activities. The carbon footprint has its origins in the ‘ecological footprint’ introduced by Wackernagel and Rees in 1996. An ecological footprint refers to the biologically productive area on earth that is necessary to maintain a person’s standard of living. On the other hand, the carbon footprint measures the land area needed to compensate carbon dioxide emissions and equivalents provoked by human activities. It is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide and methane emissions of a defined population, system or activity, considering all relevant sources, sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population, system or activity of interest calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential (Wright L. et al., 2011). It can be measured by the total amount of greenhouse gas emissions that are directly or indirectly caused by an activity or accumulated over the life stages of a product. Carbon footprint provides a concrete tool for the control of the gasification of our planet. Main sources of greenhouse gas emissions can be identified, and high emissive areas can be reduced when striving for a lower-emission policy. By this means, governmental institutions and companies can use this method to assess a product’s impact on the environmental. This method provides companies, organisation and universities to investigate their processes and allow businesses to make more efficient decisions. Environmental considerations while developing their business have shown encouraging effects not only on a reductive cost base but also on their Corporate Social Responsibility image, which eventually results in a competitive advantage.Reducing carbon emissions has become a new lifestyle trend that has led to more use of renewable energy. A carbon footprint represents a more substantial tool for the civil society to be aware of individual climate actions. Nowadays, numerous online platforms for calculating individual carbon footprints are also being offered. The main aim of a Carbon footprint’s calculation is to assess all greenhouse gases emissions of a product’s development including all its steps from the manufacturing of raw materials to production processes, logistic distributions, packaging, retail, consumption and recycling or disposal. Many companies also provide carbon labels. They provide additional information for consumers, but carbon labels are still rare. Carbon labels are designed to help consumers making more climate-friendly purchase choices. Within this eco-label category, the carbon label (CL), also called carbon footprint label or CO2 label, has become animportant and communicative tool for the attempt to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It is aimed to visibly transmit the CO2 orCO2-e emissions over a product’s life cycle to the consumers, giving better choice criteria in their purchase decisions by confronting them with their own environmental consumption impact and generating an improved environmental behaviour. Companies have started to apply carbon labels as a way to demonstrate their environmental responsibility and to highlight their products. The label trend can also convince other firms to start cutting their emissions causing in cost-reduction, improved image and reputation. Although carbon labels also exist for companies reporting emissions from their own production processes, labels for product packages are more common since they enclose emissions from a wider supply-chain range. Both companies and consumers can be influenced by carbon labels towards a reductive carbon behaviour. Increased information interest from the consumer side has given a further reason for the carbon labelling of products. Additionally, labels should include transparency, trustworthiness, completeness, clarity, availability and producer incentive.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACT ON MENTAL HEALTH The global climate change problem presents serious problem on the mental and physical health of people. Some peopleare more vulnerable to the potential impact and risk of climate change on mental health. There are communities and people that are more vulnerable to such events than other communities and people;these include vulnerable groups like children, refugees, and indigenous groups, marginalized sections of society, older adults, the chronically ill, people with disability, pregnant and postpartum women, people with mental illness, and those with lower socioeconomic status.Thus, climate change and mental health is one of the most nascent topics within the climate change and global warming health research, as very few studies discuss the risks and impacts of a changing climate on psychosocial health(Middleton et al., 2020; Burke et al., 2018; Dollard and Katasek, 2010). The more temperature shifts from optimum levels, the more there will be groups that cannot cope, and such extreme weather conditions can lead to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), anxiety, depression, complicated grief, survivor guilt, vicarious trauma, recovery fatigue, substance abuse, and suicidal ideation. Incremental climate changes, such as rising temperatures, rising sea levels, and drought, can change natural settings, disrupt food and water resources, change agricultural conditions, change land use and habitation, weaken infrastructure and result in monetary problems, and personal and social relationship stress, increase risks of violence and aggression, and displacement of entire communities. Thus, when people are exposed to climate change they experience constant uncertainty, anxiety, loss, disruption, displacement, and fear even before a disaster has even occurred. Climate change negatively impact mental health and wellbeing with unequal distribution within and among communities. The primary threats of a changing climate and global warming can also incite hopelessness, powerlessness and helplessness as actions to address the constant problem of climate change seem vague or insignificant in comparison to the scale and magnitude of the threats (Littlemore, 2019). However, there is a silver lining as well as these same disastrous circumstances may also result in resilience, altruism, sympathy, optimism, and foster a sense of meaning and personal growth as people come together to rebuild, and console amongst the confusion, chaos and loss of a changing climate A striking example is the traditional native populations or farmers (Albrecht, 2019). Different studies have considered the effect of climate change on native communities and highlighted aspects of weakness and resilience. Among these populations, the older adults are a clear example of difficulty in re-adaptation. Furthermore, climate change augments existing inequalities, rendering those most marginalized at greater danger to the health consequences of a changing climate. Climate change is a social determinant for mental health specially for marginalized group with pre-existing mental health conditions. Moreover, studies have shown negative impact on refugees and migrants ethnic minorities, the homeless or vulnerable populations such as the developing countries like India, China, and Brazil (Cianconi et al., 2020; Michael et al., 2012). Women, refugees, migrants and families from low socioeconomic status, living in poverty, with scarce economic and social resources, reduction of social support with traumatic experiences (death or life risk, serious injury or sexual assault) and stressors might have more chances of developing new mental disorders. After climate disasters, children typically show more severe disturbances than adults, with more severity and prevalence regarding the onset of PTSD, anxiety, and depression (Galea et al., 2005). The lack of attention to the topic of climate change and mental health is often due to the challenges of attribution. Attribution in this case is the scientific association between greenhouse gas emissions and meteorological change on the one hand, and between climate change-related meteorological change and mental health effects on the other.Climate change leads to extreme weather which further leads to frequent, intense, and complex weather events.But many of these studies tend not to connect extreme weather to a changing climate. Similarly, within the disaster mental health literature, the links between extreme weather events and mental health effects are well established. However, studies focus on mental health outcomes of specific hazard events which positions each hazard as an isolated incident rather than connecting it to the problem or the impact of climate change. Thus, the risk of overlooking or minimizing the role of climate change within these hazardous events is major cause that creates a sensitive culture ofemergency response that inhibits appropriate and effective adaptation planning and preparation for complex emergencies that a changing climate can create. Recent studies show that peopleoften go through ecoanxiety, which is an experience where they feel loss, helplessness, powerlessness, and frustration caused by their inability to cope with climate change (Hickman, 2020). People with ecoanxiety may also experience feelings of uncertainty, unpredictability and anticipation of the unknown regarding climate change. This leads to a psychological distance, a perception of distance, when a climatic event occurs as near or far, at a temporal, spatial, and social level. In response to growing stress and ecoanxiety related to the changing climatic conditions and various type of biosphere concern, clinical psychologists and therapists are establishing a new field of treatment, termed “ecopsychology” (Frumkin, 2012). It is important thatsocial workers, doctors, therapists and people in medical fieldto impartchildren, adults and patients to accept their own helplessness and powerlessness. For example, when it starts raining, some patients have episodes of anxiety, stress and feeling of sadness because they think of the past flooding with fear of losing the house or maybe a death of a loved one due to the flood. Thus, ecological grief is recorded, which refers to the grief and anxiety related to trauma they have experienced due to the climatic condition(Cunsolo and Landman, 2017). These new terms are emerging from recent observations due to the risk, impact and power that climate change has on mental health and on wellbeing of people. It will certainly take time and further studies in order to identify these new diseases and disorders. The DSM-5 and ICD-10 offer no specific references to mental disorders related to climate change. The chapter “Other conditions that may be a focus of clinical attention” in the DSM-5 contains the section “Economic Problems” where the following conditions are listed: lack of adequate food or safe drinking water, extreme poverty, low income, insufficient social insurance, or welfare support(Cianconi et al., 2020). In the section “Problems Related to other Psychosocial, Personal and Environmental Circumstances” the following conditions are listed: exposure to disaster, war, or other hostilities. Acting on the health consequences of climate change requires actions rooted in both mitigation and adaptation at all levels from global, national, state to local,andfrom all sectors and individuals. Climate change mitigation refers to primary efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance carbon drops to slow the speed, scale, and magnitude of climate change. Key climate change mitigation priorities include:

1. Reducing energy demand (through reduced consumption and increased energy efficiency),
2. A swift and equitable transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy.
3. Reducing emissions from agriculture and forestry, and
4. Strengthening land-based climate mitigation measures, for example, agriculture and forestry.They includesupply-side interventions in forests and other ecosystems (to protect, manage, and restore), agriculture (to reduce emissions and enhance carbon sequestration), and bioenergy (to reduce fossil fuel emissions and sequester carbon), as well as demand-side interventions on food waste, diets, and resource use.

CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION Climate change adaptation refers to interventions that respond to the effects of climate change by adjusting, moderating, and coping with the risks and impacts of climate change. Adaptation is ultimately affected by the capacity to adjust, which is the willingness to respond to climate change mediated by individual and collective agency. Adaptive capacity is determined by things like governance, economics, infrastructure, technology, community, information and skills, institutions, and equity. Some of the intervention examples are:

1. Observation, surveillance and monitoring of disease burdens related to climate change and health,
2. Educating people (e.g., public health promotion of the risks of vector-borne illness),
3. Capacity building (e.g., physical and psychological first aid, and surge capacities at hospitals and health care facilities),
4. Preparing and planning for extreme weather events, and
5. Relocating entire communities to geographic areas where sea-level rise and frequent extreme weather events are less likely to occur. There is a need to address the negative impact of climate change on mental healthasvery few policies address the future risks and impacts of climate change.Coordinated and collaborative efforts to address the mental health implications of climate change not only require policy frameworks but also concrete actions on behalf of mental health practitioners. Some actions may include:
6. Communicating about climate change and mental health in a way that helps people understand that it is pertinent and salient to them,
7. Support for greenhouse gas reductions in health care facilities,
8. Engagement in efforts to reduce the environmental footprint of the health care sector; and,
9. Engaging in adaptation measures like preparing for and responding to extreme events. Furthermore, behavioural, psychological engagement and coping strategies can be further propagated by mental health therapist and advocates so that people can psychologically adapt to the grave threat posed by climate change.Coping strategies to manage the negative and sad feelings and thoughts that arise from the traumatic experiences of climate change so that people can face up to, and come to terms with, these threats and consequences rather than avoiding the problem of climate change. Active hope advocated by Macy and Johnstone (2012) is a psychological adaption strategy where people transition from apassive state (where waiting for someone else to take-on the task of addressing the climate change problem) to a process of climate change mitigation and adaptation behaviours (Johnstone, 2014).The key point here is that hope alone cannot provide sufficient safeguard from the escalating negative risks of climate change. This “active” process occurs when the reality of the problem is recognized and acknowledged, as is the magnitude of the problem, intentions to address the problem are set, and engaged actions take place. While these three steps may oversimplify the complexity of working in the face of bureaucracy, climate denialism, or downright avoidance and ignorance of the magnitude of the problem area, but these three steps are indeed the important points of transformation (Hrynkow, 2013).However, these important points need to be endorsed by global political will and policy commitments to tackle the problem at the appropriate scale and speed. With that public awareness of the severity, extent, consequences and range of health impacts need to be projected to pressure the governments and communities to act. Adaptation measure comes in various forms that focus on the psychosocial impacts of climate change come in a variety of forms, such as policies, practices, behavioural interventions, community-based interventions, specific training, and pharmacotherapeutics. Some general approaches to address climate change-related mental health problems or illnesses include: primary care interventions, individual and group-based therapy, cognitive based interventions (including cognitive-based therapy, cognitive restructuring, and stress inoculation training), and crisis/trauma counselling. Engaging with art, literature, and spirituality may help in building resilience. Additionally, some adaptation mechanisms that ought to be considered to support people with mental health problems in a changing climate are:
10. Policy responses: Improving access, advocating for mental health and funding to mental health care.
11. Surveillance and monitoring:Administering epidemiological surveys after extreme weather events, and monitoring emergency department visits during heat waves, droughts, floods, hurricanes, earthquake etc and following extreme weather events.
12. Practice: Introducing interventions of a stepped-care approach to mental health that is often used in disaster mental health to support different levels of interventions depending on the timing of the disaster and the level of distress
13. Preparation and response: Climate change adaptation and resilience planning in the mental health system.
14. Community-based interventions: Climate change resilience plans that address physical psychological and social wellbeing; and,
15. Special training for care providers and first responders: e.g., Psychological First Aid. Other new approaches to addressing mental health and wellbeing in a changing climate include experiencing and preserving nature. Studies suggest that environmental preservation provides people with a sense of ownership and personal investment which can help people overcome feelings of hopelessness, anxiety, and Ecoparalysis(Yaqoob, 2019). If people feel a deep personal connection to places such as forest, wilderness, and other species, then threats to these others are much more likely to be viewed as personal issues (Pyle, 2013). Other research on the restorative benefits of natural environments and settings has found that biodiversity in natural environments is important for human mental and physical health and wellbeing and it has a particularly positive effect on mood, attention and cognition (Mantler and Logan, 2015). For example: A common practice in Japan to reduce stress and anxiety is the practice of shinrin-yoku, otherwise referred to as forest bathing. A framework showing the mental health consequences of climate change and how these consequences are mediated by the social and ecological determinants of health, response interventions, and factors that influence psychosocial adaptation is shown in Figure 11.1.

Key points. CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION Climate change adaptation refers to interventions that respond to the effects of climate change by adjusting, moderating, and coping with the risks and impacts of climate change. Adaptation is ultimately affected by the capacity to adjust, which is the willingness to respond to climate change mediated by individual and collective agency. Adaptive capacity is determined by things like governance, economics, infrastructure, technology, community, information and skills, institutions, and equity. Some of the intervention examples are:

1. Observation, surveillance and monitoring of disease burdens related to climate change and health,
2. Educating people (e.g., public health promotion of the risks of vector-borne illness),
3. Capacity building (e.g., physical and psychological first aid, and surge capacities at hospitals and health care facilities),
4. Preparing and planning for extreme weather events, and
5. Relocating entire communities to geographic areas where sea-level rise and frequent extreme weather events are less likely to occur. There is a need to address the negative impact of climate change on mental healthasvery few policies address the future risks and impacts of climate change.Coordinated and collaborative efforts to address the mental health implications of climate change not only require policy frameworks but also concrete actions on behalf of mental health practitioners. Some actions may include:
6. Communicating about climate change and mental health in a way that helps people understand that it is pertinent and salient to them,
7. Support for greenhouse gas reductions in health care facilities,
8. Engagement in efforts to reduce the environmental footprint of the health care sector; and,
9. Engaging in adaptation measures like preparing for and responding to extreme events. Furthermore, behavioural, psychological engagement and coping strategies can be further propagated by mental health therapist and advocates so that people can psychologically adapt to the grave threat posed by climate change.Coping strategies to manage the negative and sad feelings and thoughts that arise from the traumatic experiences of climate change so that people can face up to, and come to terms with, these threats and consequences rather than avoiding the problem of climate change. Active hope advocated by Macy and Johnstone (2012) is a psychological adaption strategy where people transition from apassive state (where waiting for someone else to take-on the task of addressing the climate change problem) to a process of climate change mitigation and adaptation behaviours (Johnstone, 2014).The key point here is that hope alone cannot provide sufficient safeguard from the escalating negative risks of climate change. This “active” process occurs when the reality of the problem is recognized and acknowledged, as is the magnitude of the problem, intentions to address the problem are set, and engaged actions take place. While these three steps may oversimplify the complexity of working in the face of bureaucracy, climate denialism, or downright avoidance and ignorance of the magnitude of the problem area, but these three steps are indeed the important points of transformation (Hrynkow, 2013).However, these important points need to be endorsed by global political will and policy commitments to tackle the problem at the appropriate scale and speed. With that public awareness of the severity, extent, consequences and range of health impacts need to be projected to pressure the governments and communities to act. Adaptation measure comes in various forms that focus on the psychosocial impacts of climate change come in a variety of forms, such as policies, practices, behavioural interventions, community-based interventions, specific training, and pharmacotherapeutics. Some general approaches to address climate change-related mental health problems or illnesses include: primary care interventions, individual and group-based therapy, cognitive based interventions (including cognitive-based therapy, cognitive restructuring, and stress inoculation training), and crisis/trauma counselling. Engaging with art, literature, and spirituality may help in building resilience. Additionally, some adaptation mechanisms that ought to be considered to support people with mental health problems in a changing climate are:
10. Policy responses: Improving access, advocating for mental health and funding to mental health care.
11. Surveillance and monitoring:Administering epidemiological surveys after extreme weather events, and monitoring emergency department visits during heat waves, droughts, floods, hurricanes, earthquake etc and following extreme weather events.
12. Practice: Introducing interventions of a stepped-care approach to mental health that is often used in disaster mental health to support different levels of interventions depending on the timing of the disaster and the level of distress
13. Preparation and response: Climate change adaptation and resilience planning in the mental health system.
14. Community-based interventions: Climate change resilience plans that address physical psychological and social wellbeing; and,
15. Special training for care providers and first responders: e.g., Psychological First Aid. Other new approaches to addressing mental health and wellbeing in a changing climate include experiencing and preserving nature. Studies suggest that environmental preservation provides people with a sense of ownership and personal investment which can help people overcome feelings of hopelessness, anxiety, and Ecoparalysis(Yaqoob, 2019). If people feel a deep personal connection to places such as forest, wilderness, and other species, then threats to these others are much more likely to be viewed as personal issues (Pyle, 2013). Other research on the restorative benefits of natural environments and settings has found that biodiversity in natural environments is important for human mental and physical health and wellbeing and it has a particularly positive effect on mood, attention and cognition (Mantler and Logan, 2015). For example: A common practice in Japan to reduce stress and anxiety is the practice of shinrin-yoku, otherwise referred to as forest bathing. A framework showing the mental health consequences of climate change and how these consequences are mediated by the social and ecological determinants of health, response interventions, and factors that influence psychosocial adaptation is shown in Figure 11.1.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN AND PRO- Environmental Behaviour ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOUR Environmental psychology tries to understand the human interaction with the environment. There is a need to understand the complex connection between the development of environmental awareness and climate friendly behaviour in order to promote pro-environmental actions. But still, there is no precise answer. The term ‘proenvironmental behaviour’ refers to the conscientious willingness and action to minimize negative impacts for our natural environment. Another term that has also been use is “environmental concern” (EC) that refers to broad range of attitudes towards the natural environment. The environmental concern not only consists of attitudes towards the environment and environmental problems, but also how people perceive their own level of environmental behaviour, and/or the behaviour of others.Long-established theories have been claiming a simple behaviour pattern to the principle ‘the more you know the more you do’ as seen in Figure 11.2. The model by Kollmuss and Agyeman (2002) was based on a linear progression of environmental knowledge leading to an environmental attitude, which lead to proenvironmental behaviour (Kollmuss&Agyeman, 2002). These models from the early 1970s were soon heavily criticized, as research showed that increases in knowledge and perception did not lead to pro-environmental behaviour. Changing behaviour is a more difficult and complicated process, and different research have tried to explore in more depth about the relevant behavioural shifting factors. They focus and deal with the wide variety of interaction patterns between the environment and human which has been explained further in this Unit. 11.3.1 Model by Kollmuss and Agyeman There have been several attempts to develop a complete and meaningful framework of factors influencing environmental behaviour. However, it is a debatable topic and researchers have concluded that combining all potential factors is impossible to bring together into one framework. However, model explaining the summary of influential In the Figure 11.3, the internal factors constitute motivation which is the most important driver for behaviour. Motives can be divided into primary and selective motives. In an environmental context, primary motives are usually oppressed by secondary motives. An example of a secondary motive is that a person could prefer driving the car than taking public transportation because the benefit perceived of travelling alone in their own private vehicle is more relaxed (selective) thanbecoming climate-friendly (primary). Secondly, researchers have noted that environmental knowledge and awareness is not a guarantee for pro-environmental behaviour. However, it is assumed that in order to act consciously, people need to have a basic understanding. Thirdly, attitudes are characterized by positive or negative thoughts towards something. However, positive attitudes towards our environment are found to have only small impacts on behaviour as it is expected that a positive attitude might only turn into positive actions if the cost of lifestyle change is low. Moreover, values, are closely linked to attitudes and are mostly responsible for our intrinsic motivation. People usually adapt, modify or change their values from their immediate surrounding due to their experiences. So, proenvironmental discussions with family and friends might form pro-environmental behaviour, sensitivity and subsequently, environmental awareness. Furthermore, emotional environmentalinvolvement refers to the emotional link between a person and the environment. Greater emotional involvement is supposed to lead to proenvironmental actions. Additionally, the locus of controlis the conviction of a person to what extent his or her actions can bring a change. People with a stronger external locus of control in comparison to their internal locus of control are less confident about their own change potential and expect others to deal with it. Lastly, responsibilities and priorities are evaluated based on attitudes, values and control beliefs. If environmental implications are in line with these factors, pro-environmental behaviours are more likely to be considered. The external factors such as the institutional factors are responsible for providing a suitable infrastructure for a positive behavioural adaptation. If an environmentally aware person is not given the chance and tools to act accordingly to their attitude, then pro-environmental behaviour will most unlikely to happen. For example, if there are no trash cans in the park and streets, then it is likely that people will litter in the park or streets. Secondly, economic factors have a strong influence as lower priced alternatives are mostly preferred but when some companies started the pay-per-bag policy, then it resulted in waste reduction behaviour. Lastly, social and cultural factors also play an important role in environmental behaviour. It is suggested that in countries where natural resources are rare and the population is dense, people tend to act more climate friendly. Lastly, demographic variables such as age, income, gender play a role in determining the environmental behaviour as higher education is believed to foster pro-environmental behaviour. 11.3.2 Theory of Planned Behaviour Another theory that predicts pro-environmental behaviour is theory of planned behaviour. Many researchers have tried to explain the gap between attitude and behaviour, butthe theory of planned action offered by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) argues that attitudes do not determine behaviour directly, rather they influence behavioural intentions which then helps to shape our actions. Intentions are not only influenced by attitudes but also by social/normative pressure. Thus, the ultimate determinants for any behaviour are the behavioural beliefs concerning its consequences and normative beliefs concerning the prescriptions of others (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). As shown in the Figure 11.4intentions are shaped by three determinants that are attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control (Conner & Abraham, 2001). Attitude refers to the degree to which a person has a favourable or unfavourable assessment of the behaviour. They give an indication of how to frame the decisional problem, the relevant behavioural alternatives and personally relevant consequences associated with these alternatives. Furthermore, subjective norms are beliefs regarding whether significant others think an individual should engage in the behaviour or not. People can be influenced by their emotions and by their values. These emotions are considered functional as they might discourage similar behaviour in the future. Moreover, motivation is an important fact in the theory of planned behaviour, and it is situated within the perceived behavioural control (PBC). This determinant refers to the perception of the acceptance or difficulty of performing the behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). The PBC has shown that people’s behaviour is strongly influenced by their confidence and belief to implement it (Ajzen, 1991). PBC has an impact on the intent to act as effort expended to successfully perform an intention is likely to increase with greater PBC. Furthermore, PBC may reflect the actual control of an individual. However, several authors (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1973; Kollmuss& Agyeman, 2002) have commented that the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) is not complete and fails to adequately consider other determinants. In addition, the TPB model identifies beliefs that are underlying attitudes (thebehavioural beliefs) and argues that attitudes can be seen as an evaluative summary based upon these beliefs (White, Terry, Troup, & Rempel, 2007, Petty & Krosnick, 2014). As a result, single attitude scores cannot adequately represent all these beliefs and thus cannot predict behaviour accurately (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1973) (Box11.1explainsthediscrepancy between attitude and behaviour) For these reasons, belief-based determinants and other determinants might influence the intention to act. Point out two models.

WASTE MANAGEMENT There are a lot of materials in the environment which exceed the balance of their production and destruction which eventually leads to the deterioration in the environment. Plastic is one such material and it poses a big threat to the environment. A huge amount of plastic is produced and dumped into the environment which does not degrade naturally. Plastic has secured a firm place in the consumer market over its substitutes.Urbanization and the increasing consumption of plastics have resulted in a rapid increase in the production of plastic waste, making it a major element of the solid waste stream. Plastic waste is the third major component of municipal waste incities after food and paper waste (UNEP, 2009). Plastics have two main impacts on the environment which include those connected with the raw materials or production processes and those connected with plastic littering and wastes. There has been a remarkably increase in plastic usage globally during the last decade, putting pressure on the source of raw materials and the environment. Recently, the magnitude of plastic use presents a major challenge to city authorities as they are responsible for solid waste management and sanitation. At present, the management of waste plastics is a major environmental issue. Numerous strategies have been implemented for the handling of plastic waste which includes recycling, depositing in landfill, incineration, microbial degradation and conversion into useful materials. However, recycling of plastic is a costly and tedious practice because of the collection, organizing and handling of waste plastics.Some environmental scholar’s belief that reuses of plastic (especially shopping bags) at the point of generation is one promising way to delay the release of plastic as waste to disposal sites or the environment. Other point is the use of utilizing different packaging materials to prevent the increased use of plastic materials. Packaging waste is very visible across globe as almost 70% of primary packaging is used for food and drink purposes, which is often discarded in a dirty state and contaminated by residues of the original contents. As the consumption of plastics is increasing day by day, there is a need to treat the used plastics in sense of resources. Plastics packaging normally considered as litter because of the lightweight nature of both rigid and flexible plastics. Thus, reusing and recycling this plastic can be helpful. Recycling is defined as the process of systematically collecting, sorting, decontaminating and returning of waste materials to commerce as commodities for use or exchange (Pohlen and Farris, 1992). Waste management varies in different countries as it is affected by several factors such as population, technology and population. Compared to developing countries, the developed countries have advanced and rich practical experience with advanced technology. Some countries follow a four-tiered hierarchical waste management strategy like the United States that is mentioned in Figure 11.5. With the expansion of cities and growth of human population, the availability of land for waste disposal is decreasing. Serious problem including groundwater contamination, soil and air pollution have caused uncontrolled and unplanned dumping of waste on land in various areas of the world. Thus, sustainable waste management approaches are needed. Sustainable waste management refers to manipulating the value of material resources as much as possible by handling waste materials from source to disposal. It is vital for conservation of natural resources but also for reducing greenhouse gases and protecting the natural ecosystem. The waste hierarchy proposed by Ad Lansink in 1979 known as the Lansink’s ladder includes the following components:

1. Reduce or prevent waste arising waste minimization initiatives to help business and households reduce waste generated.
2. Reuse waste: reuse waste and thus avoid energy consuming reprocessing.
3. Recycle: reprocess waste for further use.
4. Energy Recovery: generating energy from waste by using a range of technologies.
5. Disposal: put waste in landfill site. The 3R principle (reduce, reuse and recycle) practise maximizes use of resource but also contributes to reduction of greenhouse gas emission, minimizing environmental load from landfill and incineration, resulting in improving economy and social wellbeing etc. The 3 Rs are essential as they help to transition from the linear economy to a circular economy. Thus, it is not only about saving resources but also about sustainable development of human society and planet. A circular economy relies on three principles that are:
6. Design out waste and pollution
7. Keep products, components, and materials at their highest value and in use
8. Regenerate natural systems In circular economy the materials flows are divided into two types that are biological and technical. In biological flow, consumption occurs, and renewable energy are regenerated and in technical cycle, technical materials are recovered and mostly restored. Figure 11.7 below shows the linear economy, where little attention is given to the social cost of waste. In circular economy, materials are reused wherever possible. Point out waste management, Lansink`s ladder and 3Rs.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES IN INDIA India has also several policies over the years. Table 11.1 mentions the sanitisation policies in India. Public health and sanitationare the subjects under the State List of the Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution. However, the Central Government in India frames policies and guidelines for sanitation and provides financial as well as capacity-building support. In rural India, the accountability for provision of sanitation facilities predominantly rests with local governments particularly the Gram Panchayat, to the extent that the State Government transfers functions, funds, and functionaries to the local government. In India, with around one-third of the total population living in the urban areas (World Bank Data, 2020), it is one of the fastest urbanising nations facing several issues in urban sanitation infrastructure and management. Though urban sanitation has made considerable progress, yet several city administrations are still grappling with the enormous challenge of providing improved and adequate sanitation facilities to its citizens. 11.5.1 Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan One of the most ambitious projects that has been successful in bringing difference at facility and infrastructure level is Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan. Swachh Bharat Mission i.e., Clean India Mission, a national level initiative started by the Government of India in 2014 is a major step towards the protection of environment. India’s honourable Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi ideated and initiated the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (SBA) on 2 October 2014 on the birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi at Rajghat, New Delhi. This programme aims at contributing towards universal cleanliness, sanitation and hygienic India. This movement has well-defined guidelines and has two submissions—the Swachh Bharat Mission (Gramin/Rural) and the Swachh Bharat Mission. The objectives of urban Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan are:  The elimination of open defecation.  Eradication of manual scavenging; modern and scientific municipal solid waste management.  Bringing positive behavioural changes regarding healthy sanitation practices.  Generating awareness about sanitation and its linkage with public health and capacity augmentation for urban local bodies (ULBs) to create an enabling environment for private sector participation in capital expenditure and operation and maintenance expenditure. But all the objectives of this programme can be achieved only if people are aware of this mission and have correct attitude towards basic sanitation and waste management. Cleanliness can be seen as a key to preventing diseases. An unclean environment can lead to spread of many diseases. Thus, SBA aims at preventive healthcare as it helps us maintain a clean environment and has the potential to support essential components of primary health by sustaining basic sanitation and preventing epidemics.