According to Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi (2000) the agenda of Positive Psychology are as follows. • To articulate a vision of good life that is empirically sound while being understandable and attractive. • To show what actions can lead to well-being, to positive individuals, and to thriving communities. • To help document - (i) what kinds of families result in children who flourish, (ii) what work settings support the greatest satisfaction among workers, (iii) what policies result in the strongest civic engagement, (iv) and how people’s lives can be most worth living. The PP manifesto says (Sheldon, et al., 2000) if one has to meet the objectives and achieve the aim of positive psychology “one must consider optimal functioning at multiple levels, including biological, experiential, personal, relational, institutional, cultural and global.” What does it mean? How can that be done? As per the manifesto we have to study: a) “The dynamic relations between processes at these levels.” b) “The human capacity to create order and meaning in response to inevitable adversity.” c) “ The means by which ‘the good life,’ in its many manifestations, may emerge from these processes.” As per the Positive Psychology Manifesto, “Positive Psychology is the scientific study of optimal human functioning.” It aims to “discover and promote the factors that allow individuals and communities to thrive.” The manifesto further states that positive psychology “represents a new commitment on the part of research psychologists to focus attention upon the sources of psychological health, thereby going beyond prior emphasis upon disease and disorder.” (Sheldon, et al., 2000, p.1). Another early pioneer of this field, late Christopher Peterson (1950-2012) says positive psychology is “the scientific study of what goes right in life” and what makes “life most worth living” (2006, p.4). To achieve these objectives, Seligman established a Positive Psychology Center in the University of Pennsylvania, in the United States. At present the vision and mission statements related to the definition, aims and scope of positive psychology are on the websites of the Department of Psychology and of the Positive Psychology Center (PPC). They are reproduced below because they provide a clear idea of this new field. “Positive Psychology is the scientific study of the strengths that enable individuals and communities to thrive. The field is founded on the belief that people want to lead meaningful and fulfilling lives, to cultivate what is best within themselves, and to enhance their experiences of love, work, and play.” “Positive Psychology aims to understand and build the emotions, and the strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive. Positive Psychology has three central concerns: positive experiences, positive individual traits, and positive institutions.” - Angela Duckworth, Paul Rozin, and Martin Seligman. According to Duckworth, Rozin, and Seligman, the three central concerns of positive psychology involve, • “Understanding positive experiences or positive emotions consists in the study of ‘contentment’ with the ‘past’; ‘pleasure’ in the ‘present’; and ‘hope’ for the ‘future’;” • “Understanding positive individual traits means the study of strengths and virtues viz., the capacity to love, valour, altruism, grit, creativity, curiosity, integrity, moderation, self-control, spirituality and humor;” and • “Understanding positive institutions involves the study of the strong families, communities, corporations and the virtues that nourish them such as justice, responsibility, civility, work ethic, leadership, teamwork, purpose and tolerance.”

Hey. Can you point out the aim and scope of positive psychology from above article?

Dr. Wong is the Founding President of the Meaning-Centered Counselling Institute, Inc. (MCCI) and the originator of ‘meaning-centered counselling and therapy’ (MCCT), an ‘integrative existential positive psychotherapy.’ In Wong’s view, suffering is as much required for flourishing and growth as the experience of positive emotions. Therefore, he terms his vision as “Existential Positive Psychology (2.0) of Flourishing Through Suffering.” He also terms it as second wave of PP. As he states: “PP is intrinsically existential because it is concerned with such fundamental questions about human existence as: What is the good life? What makes life worth living? How can one find happiness? However, these existential questions cannot be fully addressed through PP research alone without recognizing people’s existential anxieties. A maturing PP needs to return to its existentialhumanistic roots to rediscover the richness of the lived experience and the many pathways to meaning in life.” (Wong, 2016, p. 1). Though Seligman’s vision and approach to PP has become very popular, it has been criticized for the overemphasis on positive emotions and undermining the significance of negative emotions experienced in our life. Existential-Humanistic psychologists are of the view that both pleasure and pain contribute to our well-being. Viktor Frankl, a German psychiatrist who survived the Holocaust during Hitler’s regime and later developed his therapeutic approach known as ‘Logotherapy’ argued that there is a strong relationship between depression, anxiety, and meaninglessness. Based on his personal experiences and of his fellow prisoners in the ‘concentration camp’ he realized that when a person loses all hope and a sense of purpose in life, he tends to become depressed and gives up. On the other hand, if he can take a perspective on his pain and suffering and searches for a meaning even in that negative circumstance, he can grow over that and feel a sense of well-being. Based on this he wrote the famous book Man’s Search for Meaning. In his view in the absence of meaning people try to fill the void in two ways: (i) by indulging in hedonistic pleasures and in the pursuit of power and materialism; (ii) and also by experiencing hatred, boredom, or neurotic obsessions and compulsions (Frankl, 1992, p. 143). Therefore, Paul Wong has focused on ‘suffering’ and ‘meaning’ as other important aspects in addition to the concepts discussed by Seligman as key themes of Positive Psychology. Further, Wong notes that, “Existential positive psychology (EPP) or positive existential psychology represents a natural amalgamation between PP and existential psychology. Basically, EPP addresses a few fundamental questions about self-identity and the human condition of striving for happiness within the constraints of reality.” (2016, p.1). Some of the fundamental questions of the Existential PP include (1) “ Who am I? What defines me?”(2) “How can I be happy? Why am I so dissatisfied with life?” (3) “What is the good life? “Is this all there is to life?” (4) “What should I do with my life? What is my calling?’ (5) “How do I make the right choices? How do I know that I am making the right decision regarding career and relationships?” (6) “Where do I belong? Why do I feel so alone in this world? How can I develop deep and meaningful relationships? (7) “What is the point of striving when life is so short?” (Wong, 2016, p.1). Thus, eight sources of a meaningful life have been repeatedly found through research: (1) Happiness and fulfilment, (2) Achieving something worthwhile, (3) Intimacy: marriage and family, (4) Good relationship with friends and people, (5) Self-acceptance, (6) Self-transcendence or altruism, (7) Religion and (8) Fairness or justice, (Wong 2011). Majority of human beings face such questions sometime or other irrespective of gender, race, color, socio-economic-status, caste, nationality, and others. Finding satisfactory answers to such questions give us a direction and meaning for our life and also satisfaction. On the other hand, failure to resolve such questions can cause anxiety and depression and may lead to suicide

Psychology today is considered as a science focusing on mental processes and behaviors with the help of empirical methods. It has grown in many directions to serve the human needs in almost all areas of life. While its repertoire of methods and concepts has grown in many contexts, its prototypical form maintains the position of a positivist scientist and favors an objective stance toward reality. Of course, there are many new developments that are constructionist in approach and opening up to respect, culture, subjectivity, and use of qualitative methods. In India, the discipline formally started at Calcutta University in the year 1915-16 when Dr. N.N. Sengupta, a Harvard-trained psychologist, joined as a faculty. Another pioneer was Dr. Girindrasekhar Bose who was interested in psychoanalysis and completed the first doctoral research in psychology in India on the concept of repression. Both these scholars did have interest in the Indian thought systems but the formal teaching and research in psychology remained confined largely to the Euro-American tradition of mainstream psychology (see for historical perspectives Sinha, 1986; Dalal, 2014). This tradition has formed the formal or official perspective adopted in teaching and research in the Indian academia. In general, the teaching-learning practices have been preoccupied with the concepts, theories, and methods developed in the Euro-American centers of learning. They were adopted and to some extent indigenized to study various issues in the Indian context (D. Sinha, 1997). The empirical researches thus used Indian samples and provided patterns of data reflecting variations in Western theoretical concepts. The use of concepts and theories of Indian origin was rare. The awareness of limitations of this approach led to various efforts towards indigenization of Western concepts and theories and incorporating concepts of Indian origin (see Bhawuk, 2011; Dalal & Misra, 2010; Misra & Mohanty, 2002; Salgame, 2011; D. Sinha, 1997). The term ‘Indian Psychology’ has been used for both the knowledge based on Indian data as well as the psychology rooted in the indigenous Indian intellectual tradition. However, the latter usage seems more appropriate. In the modern period, the phrase Indian Psychology (IP) was first used by Jadunath Sinha (1931) to present a review and reconstruction of the repertoire of rich Indian knowledge systems related to mental functions and consciousness. Subsequently, he published two more volumes (J.N. Sinha, 1958, 1961) in this series. While there were many sporadic writings, it is only recently that IP has revived and gained some momentum and several volumes and contributions have been published (Akhilanand, 1948; Cornelissen, Misra, & Varma, 2014; Misra & Paranjpe, 2012; Misra, 2013; Paranjpe, 1984,1998; Paranjpe & Misra, 2012; Rao & Paranjpe, 2016; Rao, Paranjpe & Dalal, 2008; Safaya, 1976). As we know, the concepts, theories, and methods of IP have developed through centuries of testing and practice and are quite diverse as reflected in the Vedic literature (Vedas, Āraņyaka, Brāhmaņa, Upanishads), Vedăñga, and schools of thought such as Vedānta, Sāňkhya, Yoga, Vaiśeşika, Mīmāńsā, Cārvāka, Āyurveda, Buddhism, Jainism, and Tańtra, to name a few. Out of these, the position of Cārvāka comes closest to the materialist view held in modern psychology. It did not consider any reality beyond what is perceivable through sensory modality. It advocated that one should enjoy life thoroughly maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain. But this view could not receive prominence. Most of the other approaches are characterized by deep but diverse kinds of engagement with transcendental reality and are characterized by moral-ethical concerns. Also, there exist psychological concepts and insights in the huge corpus of literature of various Indian disciplines (Śāstra), epics (Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaņa), Smriti texts, Purāņa, Dharmaśāstra, Arthaśāstra, Kāmaśāstra, etc. Owing to deeply entrenched colonial mindset and institutionalization of Western-centric academic practices, most of these resources are still untapped. Keeping the present context in view there is a need to familiarize ourselves with the classical Indian psychological perspective. Rao (2011), a prominent figure in the study of Indian Psychology, has noted that IP is the study of the person (Jiva). This person is not an isolated and disconnected entity as Jiva is transpersonal, bound by transcognitive states. The person is consciousness embodied. Mind is different from consciousness as well as the body/brain-machine. Unlike consciousness, the mind is material, albeit subtle. Unlike the brain, the mind has non-local characteristics, that is, it is not constrained by time and space variables, as gross material objects are. Time and space are superimposed by the mind; they are thus the creations of the mind. Yoga is a method of liberation via the realization of transcognitive states. Depending upon one’s disposition one may go for knowledge-focused Gyāna yoga or devotion-focused Bhakti yoga or action-oriented Karma yoga. Thus we find that IP is broad-based in its assumptions about reality and encompasses physical, social, moral, and spiritual aspects of functioning in an integrated manner. The consciousness-based IP offers a more coherent framework for psychology than psychology with a material base as noted in mainstream psychology. Self as a subject is the focus in IP, but in West, it is the object. Experience is at the center of awareness and knowing becomes being. There is direct personal involvement and Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Tantric traditions clearly focus on spiritual development. The works of Sri Aurobindo have attempted to synthesize the Eastern and Western ideas which clearly indicates the direction in which psychology has to move if it wants to contribute something substantial to our individual and collective development. From the article what is the distinction beteen western and Indian psychological perspective.

need 10 points.

Yoga and Well-being To begin with, it must be realized that the functioning of body and mind are connected. The system of Yoga helps achieve integration of mind and body and facilitates attaining happiness and well-being. Yoga helps nurture positive attitudes and reconditions the neuromuscular systems. It enhances the capacity to withstand greater stress and strain and allows harmonious development of all the potentialities present in a person. The meaning of Yoga implies the act of joining. Patanjali, the author of Yoga Sutras, defines yoga as a process of restraining the mind (Chitta) from various modifications (Vritti). In other words, yoga involves regulating mental functions. The system of yoga involves a family of practices dealing with different levels and domains of human functioning. The eight limbs of yoga (Aştāńga Yoga) enunciated by Patanjali include: • Yama - moral injunctions or self restraints which consists of various moral and ethical practices, for example, not to steal, not having greed etc. • Niyama - various observances such as maintaining cleanliness, being content, engaging in self-study (Svādhyāya), etc. • Āsana - various yogasana or postures • Pranāyama - regulation of breath, which is the life force or life energy • Pratyāhara - internalization of the senses towards their source, nonattachment • Dhārana - concentration • Dhyāna - meditation • Samādhi - bliss, higher consciousness Stilling the mind and consciousness is the key to yogic practices. The principle of Karma or cause and effect states that our actions rooted in desire, greed, anger, lust, pride, and malice bring afflictions (Kleśa) and those who are free from these move towards bliss. Patanjali says that the practice of yoga reduces afflictions and leads to Samadhi. For this purpose, he describes Kriyā Yoga or yoga in action. You will learn more about Patanjali’s yoga in Unit 13 on Yoga and Meditation. In general most of us are preoccupied and concerned with what others are doing. It has been estimated that roughly about 75 percent of the time goes to it. The remaining 25 percent goes to becoming aware of the “I” identity. Thus the mind is preoccupied with external things either looking at others critically or trying to fulfill desires. Yoga aims at changing internally. The human mind is like a blackboard on which we are constantly writing. So cleaning of mind of sanskaras and karmas while doing purification, we move from awareness to discrimination, performance, and creativity. The journey begins with a desire to develop self-awareness or to discipline the self.

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Praņāyāma It refers to the science of breath. Prana is the vital energy of the universe. Thus prāņayāma is the science that imparts knowledge related to the control of prana. Controlling prana allows control of mind and body. The yogic breathing exercises enable controlling the mind and attaining higher states of consciousness. It is through the manifestation of prana that all body functions are coordinated. The energy of prana is subtle in form. Its most external manifestation is the breath. Prana is the energy that governs the breath. Breath becomes the bridge between mind and body. It is called a thermometer, which registers the conditions of the mind and the influence of the environment on the body (Akhilanand, 1948, 1952; Swami Ram et.al. 1998). It is through the control of respiration that the yogi proceeds to control the other subtle energies of prana. There are various forms of Praņāyāma such as Nādi Śodhan, Kapāla-bhāti, Bhaştrikā, Ujjayi, Bhrāmari, Sitali, and Sītkari. Actually, all these types of pranayama involve variations in inhalation, retention, and exhalation of breath. Breath awareness is an essential part of meditation.

What are the key points?

Meditation Meditation brings mind, body and spirit in harmony by experiencing equanimity. The basis is the idea that we are not separated into mind and body. We are one whole - the mind responds to the body at the same instant the body responds to the mind. The awakened life is energetic and fully conscious. Meditation essentially involves looking inward. It brings balance and equilibrium is maintained. Meditation involves a variety of practices such as self-inquiry, mindfulness, reflection, concentration, contemplation, prayer, quiet mind, controlled breathing, and bliss. Chopra (2020) has beautifully summarized these functions. Self inquiry helps mind in recovering from habits. reflection frees from thoughtlessness. Contemplation helps in recovering from confusion. Concentration allows to recover from pointlessness. Prayer is the way mind recovers from helplessness. Quiet mind helps recovering from overwork. Controlled breathing allows recovery from stress. Bliss is the way to recover from suffering. In recent years neuro-scientific mechanisms involved in meditation are being investigated (see Goleman, & Davidson, 2018). It has been demonstrated that with training we can change our level of consciousness and rise up into levels of consciousness far beyond our ordinary human state

Forgiveness Take a minute and think about a time when someone (a friend, sibling, acquaintance, classmate, etc.) said something hurtful to you or wronged you. Maybe they borrowed your bike and got into an accident, said something nasty behind your back or bullied/harassed you. How did it make you feel? Upset? Angry? Maybe you felt like you wanted to ‘give it back to them’, ‘teach them a lesson’. Or perhaps you wished for some misfortune to befall them. In some situations, however, you might have thought, “It’s alright, everyone makes mistakes”, “Let me not be too harsh on them”, “That’s a mean thing to say, but she’s human”. In other words, you chose to forgive them. Forgiveness is one’s capacity to let go. To let bygones be bygones without being driven by the need to seek revenge, hold grudges or harbour resentment against the wrong done towards us. Forgiveness is a character strength that belongs to the virtue category of temperance. Temperance refers to moderation. This virtue category includes those strengths that allow us to moderate or restrain our thoughts, feelings and behaviour. Thus, the strengths of temperance ‘temper’ our responses and prevent us from extremes. Specifically, the positive trait of forgiveness protects us from the excess of hatred. It is a character trait that is highly valued across cultures. Forgiveness may not be easy to practice every time. It may not have an immediate tangible outcome. It may not result in discernible benefits to the one who practices it. And it certainly does not prevent future transgressions. Yet it is intensely fulfilling. It is the ability to let go of an unpleasant situation, not because of internal states like shame/fear/guilt, or external motivation like bribes or threats, but because of a positive strength of character. While the negative feelings of resentment, animosity, vengeance, etc. leave us feeling empty inside, practicing forgiveness brings a sense of satisfaction and peace at having done the right thing. It is an adaptive interpersonal strength as it bolsters social relationships. It is easier to forgive if one can take the point of view of the transgressor. Thus, empathy facilitates forgiveness. Other character strengths like hope, kindness and spirituality may also facilitate forgivenessForgiveness is not the same as pardoning, condoning or forgetting. Pardoning is a legal concept, often used in the context of the administration of justice. While administration of justice is a social phenomenon, forgiveness is an individual/ internal process. Condoning refers to justifying the offense or treating it as acceptable or ignoring it completely, e.g., when you see someone stealing in a shop and you just look the other way. Similarly, forgetting removes awareness about the transgression. True forgiving does not involve a wilful acceptance of the shortcomings/imperfections of others and giving them another chance. Forgiving also needs to be distinguished from reconciliation i.e., restoration of the relationship. Even though the latter may be a related outcome of the act of forgiveness. Forgiveness and Well-Being True forgiveness reduces anxiety, brings a sense of inner peace and strengthens the immune system (Weir, 2017). Individuals with high levels of forgiveness also show higher levels of positive emotions and social integration (Long et al., 2020). They are also more prone to donate towards charity or engage in volunteering (Karremans et al., 2005). Thus, the benefits of this character strength are seen at the individual, interpersonal and societal level. Forgiveness can be cultivated. Spiritual orientation and religious beliefs promote forgiveness. Psychotherapeutic interventions with a positive psychological orientation have focussed on helping clients develop empathic and perspective taking skills which promote forgiveness. Reed & Enright (2006) report an intervention programme called Forgiveness Therapy consisting of four phases: (i) exploring one’s negative feelings about the offense, (ii) deciding to forgive, (iii) working towards developing a better understanding of the offender, and (iv) discovering empathy and compassion for him or her

Kindness Kindness is a character strength under the virtue category of Humanity. Strengths of humanity include positive traits that are manifested in the form of caring one-to-one relationships with others. Kindness means being nice to others - showing compassion and care, being concerned about their well-being and performing good deeds for them. This care, affection and attention directed towards the other is for their own sake as human beings, not out of a sense of duty or principle. Acts of kindness could be big (e.g., donating blood in the hospital) or small (holding the door open for the person entering behind you). These could also be directed towards a stranger (e.g., offering your seat to an elderly person while riding on a bus) or be performed within the context of deeper interpersonal relationships (e.g., taking care of an ailing parent). Kindness involves giving your time, energy, money to support others. Kindness, generosity, nurturance, care, compassion and altruistic love describe a type of other-orientation; an orientation where you give attention and affection to the other for their own sake and not because they serve some purpose for you. Thus, acts of true kindness are not performed with an expectation of a favour being returned, even though reciprocity may be one of the outcomes. In that sense, such loving compassion is unconditional, much like the ‘unconditional positive regard’ Carl Rogers spoke about.

‘Mindset’ refers to a set of beliefs that shapes how you make sense of the world, influences the way you think, feel and behave. The Mindset Theory (Dweck & Legget, 1988) suggests that people can have two mindsets or attitudes about intelligence: Entity or Fixed Mindset: Here one considers intelligence to be fixed, assumes that talents, abilities and understanding are more-or-less fixed or unchangeable. A person with a fixed mindset believes that talents are innate and s/he is born with them – “you are the way you are”. Incremental or Growth Mindset: Here one considers intelligence to be flexible, and changeable. It is assumed that talents, abilities and understanding can be cultivated, expanded and refined. In other words, the belief that you are a “work in progress”. Now imagine, as a student, which of the two mindsets would make you more motivated to study for an exam or excel in class? You guessed right! A growth mindset. As an individual, because you believe that you can improve, you are more likely to expend time and effort on learning new things and investing in personal growth. Thus, your mindset influences your motivation, attitude, behaviour and performance. With a growth mindset you are more driven, more committed and put in more effort. All these are important qualities that help a person to succeed. In fact, a person with a fixed mindset is likely to avoid challenges, give up more easily in the face of failure and feel dejected by negative feedback. In addition, such a person is constantly struggling to ‘prove himself/herself’ at school, at the job or in relationships. Since intelligence, personality and character are traits valued in our society, every situation for a person with a fixed mindset is full of constant self-evaluation - “Will I be able to do this or not?”, “Will I appear intelligent or stupid?”. On the other hand, a person with a growth mindset welcomes challenges and takes negative feedback constructively. Failure becomes a stepping stone to success as the person learns from i

MULTICULTURAL MINDSET With the explosive growth of the internet and the in-roads of the World Wide Web into our daily life, we are now living in a ‘global community’. We are rapidly moving from monocultural to multicultural societies. Individuals with a multicultural mindset adapt to and are open to learning about new cultures. Mere exposure to diverse cultures is insufficient for personal and professional growth. Maddux et al. (2014) report that even when individuals are exposed to the same multicultural environment, it is their psychological approach and engagement with different cultures that determines the extent to which they are able to integrate diverse ideas, new ways of thinking, conflicting beliefs into their existing set of thought/action repertoires. The successful assimilation of these differences and subsequent broadening of an individual’s cognitive, emotional and behavioural capacities eventually translates into visible advancement in professional opportunities. It requires an active engagement with a new culture so as to develop new ways of thinking and perceiving that will impact one’s values, beliefs and behaviour. The term multicultural mindset largely comes from the organizational literature. As the work and organizational world becomes more and more culturally diverse, career psychologists are looking at interventions that can promote a multicultural mindset in young people. This kind of global mindset needs: • Drive—interest, curiosity and confidence while interacting in a multicultural environment. • Knowledge—meaningful understanding of the similarities and differences between cultural groups, without resorting to stereotyping. • Strategy—awareness and ability to plan effectively keeping these cultural differences in mind. • Action—being able to adapt when relating and working in multicultural settings. A multicultural mindset is an asset, especially in the work domain. It helps individuals perform better during international work assignments, equips individuals with effective cross-cultural negotiations skills and benefits sales employees working with culturally diverse customers (Chao, 2018). Like the growth mindset, an individual with a multicultural mindset believes that cultural attributes are changeable, not fixed. They are more open to challenging their own cultural beliefs and attitudes, learn new ones or integrate them into existing ones and act accordingly. As a result, they are less anxious about being in multicultural environments. They are confident that they can create social realities that are in line with their cultural expectations, thereby, reducing awkwardness, embarrassment, or chances of rejection by others. For example, suppose you go to Germany to study or work. You know that language is not a barrier because you can manage well with English. However, if you are an individual with a multicultural mindset, you would show an interest, curiosity, and willingness to learn German. When you do that, you can adapt with ease to the new culture, relate better with the natives, learn more about how Germans think, feel and behave. This helps you to anticipate situations and act accordingly, thereby increasing your chances of success in personal, interpersonal and professional domains.

Emotion mood and effect. Let us first understand certain key terms related to positive emotions. Historically, we have much emphasized the negative emotions for their survival value and evolutionary significance. Such negative emotions as fear and anger can help us in situations of danger to protect us by adopting a flight or fight stance. However, with the emergence of the field of positive psychology, research has started to emphasize on the significance of positive emotions also. Emotion refers to a specific feeling and is always associated with an object (Cohn & Fredrickson, 2009). According to Plutchik (2001), emotion includes feelings, psychological changes, impulses to action and specific goal- directed behavior. Thus it is characterized by three elements: a certain physical arousal, a certain behavior that reveals the feeling to the outside world, and an inner awareness of the feeling (Ciccarelli & White, 2018). We are usually aware of a few predominant emotions commonly perceived such as anger, joy, fear, sad, happy, greed etc. However, there are a variety of emotions and combination of emotions also which make our life complex unless we develop a proper understanding of them. Plutchik (2003) has represented all these emotions in a wheel of emotions (see Fig. 6.1 below). There are primary emotions such as fear, anger, sadness, surprise, disgust, joy, anticipation and trust; and secondary emotions arising out of the combination of emotions in terms of types and intensity. Emotion is often confused with mood. However, mood is broader than emotion; refers to a general feeling, not associated with any specific object/event. It is described as free floating and lasts for a longer time, e.g., Riya is in a good mood these days because of her job promotion. Thus mood refers to our general emotional state whereas emotions are specific temporary emotional states that are related to specific objects/situations/events. In the span of an entire day, we may experience many related specific emotions such as joy, happiness, love, contentment etc., but our mood may be one type only, that of a pleasant mood. Another related word is Affect, which is mostly meant to be emotion; however these two are different. Affect refers to the immediate, physiological response of an individual to a stimulus and is typically based on an underlying sense of arousal (Snyder, Lopez, & Pedrotti, 2011). This autonomic arousal gives rise to valence of the affect, that is, apprising the stimulus/event as pleasurable or painful. Thus emotions can have physiological as well as psychological effects. It is characterized by physiological response and psychological appraisal resulting in positive affect or negative affect. Positive affect includes such emotions as joy, happiness, contentment, cheerfulness; whereas negative affect involves emotions such as fear, anger, guilt, sadness, disgust etc. The effects of such positive emotions and negative emotions have been indicated by various research studies (e.g., Barrett, 2006; Watson, 2002) which highlight the underlying physiological mechanisms and psychological implications of such emotions. Thus when we are under stress, sad, angry, or we are cheerful, enjoy, and have fun, it affects our bodily functions differently. The pioneer in the field of research on positive emotions is Dr. Alice Isen who has pointed out many benefits of when we engage in positive emotions (e.g., Isen, 1987; Ashby, Isen, & Turken, 1999): (a) helping others, (b) being flexible in thinking, (c) making better decision, and (d) generating more solutions to problems. Thus positive emotions result in various cognitive and social benefits to the individual.

Emotional Storytelling Have you ever felt the need to express when you have undergone a very stressful situation or trauma in your life? How did you feel before you expressed and after you expressed your emotions, anxieties, insecurities, distress to another person? Narrating your story, especially related to adverse or traumatic experiences has a cathartic effect on the person. It provides an opportunity to express and process the negative emotions, which ultimately results in coping and other health benefits. Studies have found that the narratives can predict health outcomes (Ramirez-Esparza & Pennebaker, 2006). Research on the benefits of Emotional storytelling was pioneered by Jamie Pennebaker in 1989 where she reported numerous health benefits for the emotional storytelling group who expressed their emotional suffering through writing as compared to the control group. Emotional storytelling either through written or oral disclosure of negative emotions experienced helps the individual to express and release the emotionrelated stress. Instead of inhibiting, it allows a safe space to explore, express and let go of the emotionally-charged thoughts and feelings. It helps people to organize their thoughts, engage in cognitive processing of the experience, find meaning in their traumas, and reintegrate their social networks (Niederhoffer & Pennebaker, 2002, p.581). Since emotions are influenced by the cultural contexts, it is important to take this into account in the process of emotional storytelling. For instance, collectivistic cultures like India value family harmony more and avoid emotional confrontations within the family, whereas individualistic culture of western countries prefer a more direct and aggressive stance. Hence the experience and expression of emotions depend on the social cultural context (Markus & Kitayama, 1991).

CONCEPT OF HAPPINESS You might have found from Activity 1 that many people want a happy and satisfying life. They want a life majorly dominated by the experience of positive emotions. Such a life Seligman calls as ‘Pleasant life’, which is characterized by deriving pleasures in life (signifies fulfilling various needs of the individual). However, one can also go beyond this and achieve a more stable happiness when one focuses on realizing one’s strengths and potentials, e.g., pursuing music, or excelling in a sport, engaging in one’s interest in gardening or swimming etc. This gives you a ‘Good life’ where you make use of your strengths and skills to feel capable and confident. This makes you feel good and happy about yourself. Finally, when you go beyond this and use your unique strengths to contribute to others, devote yourself for a greater cause, it provides you a ‘Meaningful life’. Here you look beyond the pleasures and the feel good factor about yourself, and look for a larger meaning and purpose in life. Thus Martin Seligman has talked about three types of life to indicate the various dimensions of happiness. Authentic and sustainable happiness can be achieved only with a meaningful life as it provides a deeper sense of fulfillment and achieves a flourishing state of well-being. However, it does not mean that we do not pursue the other two types of life. Rather, Seligman advocates an integrative approach where one pursues the pleasures in life, works towards using one’s strengths, and aims at going beyond oneself - being altruistic, and working for greater cause. This helps in conceptualizing happiness comprehensively. Hedonic and Eudaimonic Perspective The pleasant life of Seligman refers to the hedonic aspect of happiness. In this sense, happiness is described as satisfaction of needs, fulfillment of which provides pleasure to the individual. Hedonic happiness focuses on personal happiness involving pleasure, joy and satisfaction, for instance, you enjoyed a good meal at the restaurant, you had fun with your friends in the party, or you felt so satisfied with your life basking in the sun in the sea beach. This is the common sense of happiness where the good life involves enjoyment and satisfaction. In the scientific research, Research in Psychology focuses on the concept of Subjective Well-being (SWB) as a synonym for happiness (Diener, 1984, 2000). SWB refers to the subjective evaluation of one’s life, i.e., how does one perceive and evaluate /judge one’s life. Subjective well-being is defined as consisting of three components: (a) life satisfaction, (b) presence of positive affect, and (c) a relative absence of negative affect (Baumgardner & Crothers, 2015, p.17). Thus there is a preponderance of positive emotion experiences than negative emotions in one’s life. It involves a cognitive component of evaluation in terms of life satisfaction and an affective component marked by prevalence of positive emotions rather than negative emotions (Di Fabio, & Palazzeschi, 2015). SWB can include Seligman’s pleasant life as well as good life. Eudaimonic happiness, on the other hand, refers to a deeper sense of meaning in life. No one will probably want to be always on the pleasure mode, being happy and cheerful; one will then miss the variety of emotions that enriches our life, and develops appreciation for life. Aristotle’s eudaimonic view of happiness states that the good life involves living according to one’s “diamon”, or ‘true self’. Thus it states that happiness comes from realizing one’s potentials and striving towards self-actualization. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs talks about self-actualization as one of the highest needs which gives meaning to one’s life (Maslow, 1968). When one lives life as per one’s talents and values, it leads to an authentic life, being true to oneself. This makes one’s life meaningful and provides authentic happiness. Thus eudaimonic happiness involves utilization of individual’s strengths, abilities, talents, values and skills. Hence it is also called the Psychological Wellbeing (PWB). Hence psychology research focuses more on well-being instead of happiness, because happiness centres on a limited view of pleasures and life satisfaction. But a broader concept of well-being adds meaning to our pleasure life and good life to make it more comprehensive, and leads towards flourishing (refer to Table 7.1 below). In addition to minimizing negative experiences and maximizing positive experiences in life, well-being also consists of achieving full human potential and to live life fully with meaning and authenticity and purposefulness (Waterman et al., 2010). Hedonic and eudaimonic conceptions of happiness may seem to be in opposition and hedonic pleasure may seem to lack in merit. However, research suggests that positive affect can contribute to meaning in life by helping the individual to think in terms of a larger context (King et. al. 2006). Experiencing positive emotions may make one feel happy and engage in different meaningful activities; similarly meaningful engagement and purpose in life will make one experience various positive emotions including being happy. Both hedonic and eudaimonic happiness contributes to one’s well-being.

differentiate between hedonic and eudaimonic perspective

SELF-ESTEEM Another important aspect of our self is self-esteem. As a human being, we constantly evaluate our self or make some judgment about our own value or worth which is termed as self-esteem. People vary in viewing their self-esteem, some have high self-esteem, whereas others may have low self-esteem. Selfesteem reflects a personal psychological characteristic relating to self-judgment based on one’s values about humans (Alesi et. al., 2012). It indicates being aware of one’s value system and an emotional evaluation of one’s self-worth (Schunk, 1985). Self-esteem is a multi-dimensional construct. We have a global overall selfesteem based on general judgements of self-worth and various subtypes of selfesteem based on evaluations of self-worth in different contexts such as, within the family, school, work setting, leisure setting, or peer group (Mruk, 1999). Self-esteem is different from self-confidence. Self-confidence indicates that you are confident of your ability to carry out a particular thing. On the other hand, self-esteem refers to how high you hold yourself in your own eyes, how much respect and worth you give to yourself. There are many self-report measures to assess self-esteem of individuals such as giving a variety of statements and asking a person to indicate whether the statements given are true for her/him or not. For instance: • “I am good at sports” • “I am the one usually chosen for the cultural programmes or competitions” • “I am highly liked by my teachers” • “My friends consider me a trustworthy person” If a child says ‘Yes’ to the above statements, it shows that s/he has high selfesteem in comparison to the child who says “No”. Generally by 6-7 years of age, children’s self-esteem is formed at least in four areas: academic competence, social competence, physical/athletic competence, and physical appearance, which improve with age and experience. Rosenberg’s Self-esteem inventory (Rosenberg, 1965b) is a most commonly used uni-dimensional measure of selfesteem. Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (Coopersmith, 1981, 2002) is a multi-dimensinal measure of self-esteem in areas of family, school, peers, and general social activities. Self-esteem is more or less stable across the life span, though it may vary at lifecycle transition points (Robins et.al., 1999). For instance, teenagers may experience a drop in self-esteem due to the various physical and psychological changes they go through. Self-esteem develops early in life based on the experiences and interactions during the early years. It has a great impact on our everyday behaviour. For instance, individuals who have high academic self-esteem perform better in studies and are liked by their peers than those with low academic self-esteem. Conversely, individuals with low self-esteem may have high levels of anxiety, depression, and antisocial behaviour than those who have high self-esteem. People with high self-esteem are better in their social adjustment (Martin et al., 2014). It also positively affects their psychological well-being and quality of life (Boyd et al., 2014). Therefore, it is extremely important for parents, families and schools to create a warm and positive environment, which can help in the development of high selfesteem among children. It makes them feel acknowledged, accepted as capable and valuable. Not allowing children to take their decisions and nagging often results in low self-esteem among children. It may be noted that it is important to have a healthy self-esteem than a very high self-esteem which is not realistic or functional. Culture/environment of an individual plays a critical role in developing his/ her self-concept and self-esteem. Some cultures focus on the importance of being together whereas other cultures value the individual beings more than the group. Understanding of ‘self’ in Indian cultural context is distinct from the Western cultural context. One of the differences is the boundary we draw between the self and the others. In Indian culture, this boundary of self is not clearly defined or fixed and gets extended to others like family and friends. For example, whenever an individual takes some decision about self (e.g. study, job, etc.), usually one tends to think his/her decision in relation to others as well. Thus, sometimes our self includes the others and sometimes it withdraws and focuses completely on individual self (e.g., our personal needs or goals). Whereas, if we see the western culture, this boundary of self appears to be relatively fixed and clearly defined where individuals keep their individuality. In the Indian culture, the self is usually attached with one’s own group and both maintain the state of harmonious co-existence. On the other hand, in the Western culture an individual often keep a distance from the others/groups which makes the Western cultures as individualistic, and Indian and many Asian cultures as collectivistic.

OPTIMISM Optimism is a cognitive expectancy for desirable events or things to happen in future. On the other hand, pessimism denotes expectancy for undesirable outcomes to happen. Optimism is also characterized as a disposition or trait, which people are endowed with in varying degrees. It is considered to be a relatively stable and enduring trait, which guides how people perceive and address particular situations. The early understanding and usage of the term was either neutral or negative, as evident from the works of eminent philosophers and psychologists like Descartes, Freud, Hegel, and Nietzsche (Domino & Conway, 2001). This was because of dominant negative outlook towards human nature in the field of psychology at that time. With advancements in research in psychology and dominance of humanistic school of thought towards the end of twentieth century, there was a change in perspective towards the concept of optimism. Based on contemporary research, there are two dominant approaches and theoretical models to optimism: Dispositional Optimism Model by Scheier and Carver (1985) and Optimism as an Explanatory Style by Seligman (1990). 10.3.1 Dispositional Optimism Scheier and Carver first discussed the concept of optimism in their theory of self-regulation, where it was conceptualized to be a personality dimension. Later they coined the term ‘dispositional optimism’. They defined it as ‘the extent to which people differ in regard to having expectancies of favorable outcomes in their future’ (Carver et al., 2010). The model proposed by Scheier and Carver is considered to be the most popular model of optimism, and has relatively stronger construct validity evidence (Bryant & Cvengros, 2004). The definition highlights optimism as a general expectancy and does not relate it to any specific context (Carver et al., 2010; Scheier & Carver, 1985). Being a personality dimension, it differentiates between optimists and pessimists, where optimist are people who have an orientation towards having positive expectations and predictions about their life in general, as compared to pessimists who have a tendency to expect negative future outcomes in life (Carver et al., 2010). They argued that optimists would have much stronger valued goals, and a higher persistence to pursue those goals in the face of difficulties using effective coping mechanisms leading to a higher likelihood of them achieving their goals (Scheier, Carver and Bridges, 2000). In contrast, pessimists being more doubtful and hesitant, have more negative affect. Scheier and Carver believed it to be a relatively stable and fixed dimension of personality. Many research studies supported this stability dimension of optimism, although it was lower in value than other personality traits (Carver et al., 2010). However some studies have found the optimism trait to be changeable over time to some extent. The results of Segestrom (2007) longitudinal study over ten years showed shifts in optimism of participants over the course of study. This and some other researches also (Feldman et al, 2015) point towards the changes over time in optimism, and how it can be enhanced with interventions. 10.3.2 Learned Optimism The other perspective in the conceptualization and measurement of optimism is ‘Optimism as an explanatory style’ or Learned optimism model by Martin Seligman. The theory of optimism as an explanatory style derives from theory of attribution and theory of learned helplessness (Seligman, 1990). Explanatory style is defined as the manner in which an individual explains the events of his/ her life, making attributions for their causes. Attributions can be made on the three dimensions: internality/externality, unstability/stability and specificity/ globality (Weiner, 1985). Internality/externality dimension refers to individuals’ tendency to ascribe either internal (self, dispositional) or external (people or situational) reasons while explaining their life events. Stability denotes causes that are fixed and stable over time, while unstable causes are variable and do not remain same over time and context. Globality refers to propensity to generalize the causes to all situations, or causes are specific to situations. Learned helplessness is a feeling resulting from inability to escape from obnoxious or painful stimuli. The model of learned helplessness attempted to explain the phenomena of depression. Abramsom and colleagues (1978) realized the capability of certain attributions to explain the learned helplessness. They found that learned helplessness can be a result of attributing internal (‘it was due to my carelessness’), stable (I will be like this forever) and global (‘my carelessness will spoil everything I will do’) causes to negative life events. Taking it forward, Seligman coined the term ‘Learned Optimism’ to describe the tendency of ascribing external (‘I met with a car accident because of faulty traffic signal’), unstable (‘It does not happen all the time to me’), and specific (‘I didn’t notice the faulty signal, otherwise I am observant’) causes to negative life events. Optimists thus are not too disturbed by the setbacks or negative life events; they see these events as occasions for learning and hope for better outcomes in future. Seligman (2003) pointed out that the essential difference between the optimist and the pessimistic explanatory style was the differential appraisal of the reasons for success and failure; the prevalence of good and bad events and capability to sustain hope. Explanatory style is modifiable according to Seligman, and can be transformed from pessimistic to optimistic style (Seligman, 2013). 10.3.3 Unrealistic Optimism There can be a tendency of attribution which can entail holding particular perceptions and self-evaluations that are unduly positive, too exaggerated to be called objective or fair. This perception of self or others is called unrealistic optimism; this might appear impractical but can serve the purpose of calming people when worried and doubtful in challenging situations, and can aid them in persisting towards their goals. Unrealistic optimism can be defined as a general propensity to anticipate a higher probability of positive events to happen to self, and a greater likelihood of negative events occuring to others (Weinstein, 1980). The concept is similar to what is called ‘Positive illusions’ (Taylor and Brown, 1988, 1994) which is common among so called mentally healthy, happy, and well- adjusted people. Positive illusions consist of an over exaggerated assessment of one’s abilities, an amplified sense of control and unrealistic optimism about future. People with unrealistic optimism are less likely to think about the possible risks or hazards involved in a problem situation, and visualize themselves in situations where they are successfully dealing with the challenge. Other than the above mentioned concepts, literature also cites many related constructs like unrealistic pessimism (Heine, & Lehman, 1995), defensive pessimism, selective attention, self-deception, and strategic optimism (Norem, & Cantor, 1986).

HOPE. Hope is an interdisciplinary concept studied in different disciplines like Anthropology, Sociology, Psychology, Philosophy, Nursing/Medicine and Theology. In philosophy, it is studied as a spiritual virtue; in nursing literature, hope is associated with survival and coping. Psychology conceptualizes hope as goal achievement. Hope, according to Staats (1989), is “the interaction between wishes and expectations.” Stotland (1969) investigated the function of expectancies and cognitive schemas in the development of hope, which he defined as a set of important goals with a high perceived possibility of realization. According to Gottschalk (1974), hope is having positive expectations about particular favorable consequences, and it motivates a person to overcome psychological challenges. A number of conceptual frameworks have been proposed by theorists like Nekolaichuk (1999), Scioli et al (1997), and Snyder (1994). Within a multidimensional framework, Nekolaichuk et. al. (1999) suggest a hope model that highlights three dimensions of hope: personal spirit (an individual dimension), risk (a contextual dimension), and authentic caring (a relational dimension). According to Scioli (1997), individuals realize hope through four dimensions: mastery (goals), survival (coping), attachment (trust) and spirituality (faith). Several other perspectives to hope such as, “hopeful thinking or cognition” (Snyder, 2000), “positive emotional experience” (Fredrickson, 2009), as a “character strength” (Peterson and Seligman, 2004) and also a “transcendental phenomenon” (Emmons, 2005, Vaillant, 2008) have been proposed. From a Positive psychology perspective, hope involves positive feelings like optimism, but it is also a cognitive- motivational state that comprises of individual’s beliefs about the self and one’s actions that shapes attainment of desirable results. Developed by Professor Charles Richard Snyder (1994), the concept of hope is conceptualized to consist of three components: (i) goals, (ii) thoughts about means or pathways to achieve specific goals, and (iii) thoughts about the agency or abilities to attain those goals. Hope is believed to be the sum of ‘pathways’ and ‘agency’ components. In other words, hope is the combination of perceived abilities to choose routes towards desirable goals and the perceived motivation to make use of those routes. It indicates the person’s belief that s/he will be able to find the path towards the desired goals and utilize these pathways for attainment of goals. As evident from the definition, Snyder emphasized hope to be a cognitive-motivational phenomena, and emotions to be a byproduct of these thoughts. Hope theory predicts that unhindered goal pursuit should result in positive emotions, but goal impediments may result in negative emotions. Snyder (2000) believed hope to be a multi-dimensional concept which can act both like a stable personality trait and contextual state. As a trait, people can have individual differences in the extent to which they possess the trait. People high on hope are thought to use different means to reach their goals, they have more clarity about the alternate routes and are more likely to have a strong belief about accomplishing their goals, as compared to people who are low on hope (Bailis and Chipperfield, 2012). According to Snyder’s model as depicted in Fig 10.1, hope will be high when it involves goals that are valued and there is average or above average probability of realizing the goals in the face of obstacles that are difficult but not overwhelming. Hope loses its relevance where one is sure of reaching the goals; and hopelessness results when it is believed that goals are not achievable. Hopeful thoughts lead to positive emotions and hopelessness results in negative emotions. Snyder pointed out that at any point in time and situation, hope is determined by the interplay of three factors: • The extent to which any goal is valued • The pathways/means and expectancies about the effectiveness of these pathways in attainment of desirable goals, and • One’s agency or energy, abilities and self-efficacy in using these pathways to goals The above mentioned factors do not operate in a vacuum, the thoughts about pathways and agency are dependent on past experiences. The developmental learnings related to correlation and causality in pathways thinking and agency thoughts derived from one’s experiences in the past guides one’s expectancies in the present. In addition to goals, pathways thinking and agency thinking, Snyder also talked about the barriers to goal achievement. Goal attainment is not always a smooth process and involves number of blockages. When faced with obstacles to goals, most people can think of at least one alternative route, but there are some who can think of multiple routes to the desired goals. This ability to find multiple pathways is more characteristic of high hope people (Snyder, 1994a, 1994b). False Hope True hope is thought to have a basis in reality, on the other hand, false hope is believed to result from recognizable distortions of reality. Many scholars and psychologists have raised concerns about the potential dangers of “false” hope (Snyder, Rand, King, Feldman, & Woodward, 2002). According to literature, false hope tend to occur for three reasons: when expectancies are based on illusions instead of reality (e.g., Beavers & Kaslow, 1981); when unreasonable goals are chased (Rule, 1982, as cited by Snyder et al., 2002); and when inadequate approach and procedures are followed to attain the desirable goals (Kwon, 2000, 2002). However, Snyder argued that false hope was not necessarily a result of distortions in reality. He believed that high hope individuals can make use of positive illusions that can shape their perception of reality, but they do not inevitably involve in counterproductive illusions resulting in major reality distortions (Snyder, 1998) Another important topic investigated by researchers is the phenomenon of Collective Hope (Snyder & Feldman, 2000). Collective Hope indicates the extent of goal-directed thinking of a group of people or communities. Collective hope becomes functional when a large number of people pursue a goal that cannot be achieved by any single individual. The operation of collective hope is visible in community efforts towards common goals like environment protection, health promotion, and government plans.

What about Snyder's model in detail?

FLOW: THE OPTIMAL EXPERIENCE The concept of ‘Flow’ originated from the works of Mihály Csíkszentmihályi (1975, 1990), a Hungarian-American psychologist, and a Professor at Claremont Graduate University, California, who first recognized and coined the term. He studied people from creative field or artists where work is integrated with leisure like dancers, painters, athletes, etc. based on which he propounded the concept of flow. The flow state was defined as the one where a person is fully engaged or immersed in the activity they are doing. It is a feeling which is characterized by a state of concentration, fulfillment, complete absorption, engagement and competency, and a disregard of the sense of time, ego, bodily needs during the activity. According to Csíkszentmihályi (2005), flow involves being fully present and engrossed in the activity and utilizing one’s skills to the fullest. The characteristic feature of flow is a deep involvement in the moment-to -moment activity. In his popular work, ‘Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience’, Csíkszentmihályi has proposed that when, in a state of flow, people feel the happiest. It is a kind of involvement and focus in one’s work that nothing else seems to matter (Csíkszentmihályi, 1990). In 1996 he added, flow is “extremely enjoyed optimal experience in which total concentration and enjoyment with great interest for the activity is experienced” (Csíkszentmihályi, 1996). This flow experience can be felt during play, games, creative pursuits, spiritual experience, and other contexts, however, it is not limited to these. Maslow’s (1962, 1971) concept of ‘peak experiences and de Charms (1968) idea of ‘origin’ state share many commonalities with flow. Based on the interview findings of artists, sportsmen etc., Csíkszentmihályi has underlined certain elements of flow experience. 11.3.1 Components of Flow Experience • Merging of action and awareness One of the most defining features of flow experience is the merging of action with its awareness. Here the individual is very much aware of his/her actions, but do not reflect on that awareness itself. For example in a chess game, the player has undivided attention on the game on its every move but is not perceptive of that awareness. For this kind of merging between action and awareness, the activity carried out must be achievable i.e., the person doing it must be confident about his/her ability to perform. • Centering of attention The flow experience is achieved when one’s attention is undivided and centered on a single stimulus field. This focusing of attention involves keeping out of attention the unnecessary, irrelevant, or distracting stimuli. It is also named as the ‘narrowing of consciousness’. • Loss of ego Loss of ego here denotes, a temporary loss of self-consciousness or one’s identity, and individuality. It is a brief forgetfulness of one’s self and becoming one with the activity. • Control of action and environment Another element of flow is a feeling of sense of control over one’s actions and one’s environment. It is not as much a feeling of mastery, as it is a state of not being bothered about by the likelihood of loss of control. • Demands for action and clear feedback The demands for action which results in flow experience have the characteristics of being clear, consonant or coherent. In addition it involves explicit and clear feedback to the person for his actions. The task is defined clearly and the person is required to do things which are coherent or compatible with the goals. In other words the goals and the means are aligned with each other. • Autotelic in nature One of the most defining characteristics of flow is it is autotelic in nature meaning it is self-rewarding and the activity does not require any rewards external to itself. Most or all of flow activities like play, dance, games, artistic drawing etc. are inherently rewarding to the person doing those activities. Although external rewards can be there in most of the above-mentioned and other flow activities yet the people experiencing flow are primarily motivated by the experience and not the external rewards attached. • Altered sense of time We all have experienced at some point or other how time seems to fly very fast when we are enjoying something, and it seems to standstill in periods of boredom, agony or stress. In the flow, attention is focused on the moment to moment activity, the person is not at all oriented towards the mental processes that signals the time duration. As a result the person fully engaged in an activity feels that time has passed too quickly (Conti, 2001). It is important to note here that for the optimal or flow experience the challenge or opportunities for action needs to be consonant with perceived capabilities. When the demands are experienced to be more than what one can handle, it can lead to stress or anxiety. On the other hand, if the skills are perceived to be greater than the demands of the situation, it can result in boredom. Therefore, flow is experienced when there is a match between the opportunities for action (challenges) and the perceived skills of the person. There are other conceptualizations of flow as well by different researchers. Most of them derive from Csíkszentmihályi model of flow. Jackson and Eklund (2002) proposed that the optimal experience can be explained by nine dimensions: consciousness-action fusion, complete concentration, lack of awareness, balance-skill challenge, time distortion, feedback, target clarity, and autotelic experience. Thus the flow experience consists of a number of elements as described above. Various other factors such as clarity of goals, optimal challenges, high achievement motivation, and importance of activity for the person also influence the extent to which the person engages in an activity and finds it intrinsically rewarding.

MEANING OF MINDFULNESS The term mindfulness is a translation of the word Sati in Pali language, and has its roots in Buddhist traditions, though its origin dates back at least as far as the third millennium B.C.E. as part of the Brahmanic traditions in the Indian subcontinent, from where emerged the Buddhism (Cousins, 1996, cited in Lomas et al, 2017 p. 133]. Mindfulness is generally used to indicate both: (i) a state or quality of mind; and (ii) a form of meditation that helps one to bring up and nurture this particular state/quality (Lomas et. al., 2017). Kabat-Zinn (2003) defines mindfulness as “the consciousness that comes through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to the flow of experience moment by moment” (Lomas et. al., 2017, p. 133). The main attributes of mindfulness involve a ‘pre-conceptual awareness’ and ‘acceptance’ of one’s experiences; flexible control of attention; a detached or unbiased openness to experience; and an orientation to be ‘here-and-now’ (Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007a; Howell, 2008, p. 773). Nyanaponika Thera (1972) called mindfulness “the clear and single-minded awareness of what actually happens to us and in us at the successive moments of perception” (Brown and Ryan, 2003, p. 822). Hanh (1976) defined mindfulness as “keeping one’s consciousness alive to the present reality” (Brown and Ryan, 2003). However, ‘paying attention’ here indicates concentrating on what one is doing, at the same time being aware of one’s affective state, thoughts, and memories that arise in that moment, and also observing when the mind digress so that it can be refocused (Baer & Krietemeyer, 2006). According to Siegel (2014), there are three components of mindfulness: awareness, present experience and acceptance. Mindfulness requires training to devote our focus to what is occurring at the moment, with open-minded inquisitiveness and approval (Kabat-Zinn 1996, in Weare, 2014, p.4). Shapiro, Carlson, Astin and Freedman (2006) specified three components of mindfulness: intention (i.e., motivation for paying attention in this way); attention (i.e., the cognitive mechanisms through which said attention is enacted); and attitude (i.e., the emotional qualities with which one imbues one’s attentive focus, like compassion) (Lomas et. al., 2017, p. 133). As a meditational practice, mindfulness meditation, specifies a diversified realm of activities relating to mind, with a common purpose of teaching the self-regulation of attention and awareness (Lomas, Ivtzan, & Fu, 2015), with the aim of improving one’s control of mental processes, leading to enhanced sense of wellbeing (Walsh & Shapiro, 2006, in Lomas et al 2017, p.134). Its foundation lies on conventional mindful meditation but as a psychological concept is separate from spiritual beliefs and Buddhist practices (Kabat-Zinn 1982, cited in Khan and Zadeh, 2014, p.70). Mindfulness meditation is often used reciprocally with Vipassana, a form of meditational practice that derives from Theravada Buddhism (Gunaratana, 2002; Young, 1997). Vipassana is also a Pali word for insight and clear awareness and carried out in a manner to gradually enhance mindfulness (Gunaratana, 2002 in Davis and Hayes, 2011, p. 199). Mindfulness meditation came to be popular in the western world owing to the efforts of Kabat-Zinn (1982), who utilized it for a novel “mindfulness-based stress reduction” (MBSR) programme. There are number of interventions based on mindfulness meditation that we will discuss later on in this unit. Dimensions of Mindfulness Based on the above discussion on the meaning of mindfulness, Shapiro et al., (2002) outlined the following qualities of mindfulness, which a person can experience during the ‘moments of mindfulness’. • Non-judgmental: Witnessing the passing thoughts and the present moment without evaluating or putting them in any categories. • Non-striving: Not trying to achieve any specific goals, not getting attached to desirable outcomes. • Acceptance: Being open and accepting of things as they are in the present. It does not indicate passive resignation or unwillingly accepting, but recognizing one’s experiences with awareness and openness. • Patience: Having a composed mind to let things unfold at their own pace. Being patient with ourselves, people around, situations and present moment. • Trust: Having trust in one’s body, one’s feelings and that whatever is happening in life it is supposed to be like that • Openness: Receiving everything as it is happening for the first time. Recognizing possibilities by being fully in the present moment. • Letting Go: Not getting attached to any thought, feeling or experience • Gentleness: Quality of being soft, tender and considerate. • Generosity: Being and giving in the present with love and compassion without getting attached to gains in return. • Empathy: Trying to understand other person feelings, perspective and situation in the present • Gratitude: The quality of appreciating and feeling grateful for the present • Loving-Kindness: The feeling of forgiveness, compassion and unconditional love.

what are qualities of mindfulness.

STRATEGIES/TECHNIQUES FOR MANAGEMENT OF STRESS Management of stress requires identifying the stress and the stressors, i.e., the factors causing stress; and also assessing the level of stress. Identification of stress requires one to identify the various signs and symptoms of stress, which can be physical/physiological, emotional, and behavioural. Identification of Stress • Physical signs: changes in heart beat, blood pressure, body weight, diabetes, sleep problem, stomach upset, aches, headache, frequent cold or infections, muscle tension, changes in menstrual cycle and libido. • Psychological signs: difficulty in concentration, and troubles in remembering and recalling, worries. • Emotional signs: being angry, moody, irritable, sad, anxious or frustrated. • Behavioral signs: poor self-care, not having time for the things you enjoy or taking to drugs and alcohol to cope, smoking, overeating, gambling, excessive internet use.

What are the stress signs?

STRATEGIES/TECHNIQUES FOR MANAGEMENT OF STRESS Management of stress requires identifying the stress and the stressors, i.e., the factors causing stress; and also assessing the level of stress. Identification of stress requires one to identify the various signs and symptoms of stress, which can be physical/physiological, emotional, and behavioural. Identification of Stress • Physical signs: changes in heart beat, blood pressure, body weight, diabetes, sleep problem, stomach upset, aches, headache, frequent cold or infections, muscle tension, changes in menstrual cycle and libido. • Psychological signs: difficulty in concentration, and troubles in remembering and recalling, worries. • Emotional signs: being angry, moody, irritable, sad, anxious or frustrated. • Behavioral signs: poor self-care, not having time for the things you enjoy or taking to drugs and alcohol to cope, smoking, overeating, gambling, excessive internet use Positive Attitude: Positive attitude refers to having an attitude that good things will happen, that one would be able to deal with a challenge or an adverse situation. Thus it involves thinking in a positive way, and having positive emotions towards the stressful situation. As the proverbial question goes, “if the glass is half full or half empty”?, positive attitude involves looking at things/situations/events/ people and focusing on what positive or good is present rather than looking at the negative or absence side. Thus it involves characteristics of optimism, hope, divergent thinking, and resilience. Positive attitude makes one confident, results in problem solving, reduces stress, and increases the inner strength of the individual. You must be thinking why don’t we have a positive attitude then? Mostly we are attuned to negative thinking because of the ‘negativity bias’ of our brain. Our brain easily picks up the negatives as it concerns survival from an evolutionary point of view. However, we can easily develop a positive attitude by developing awareness about it. Practicing positive attitude is a constructive process where you do not negate the negative thoughts. Rather you adopt a critical approach to the situation and think about the best possible alternatives in the situation while maintaining an attitude of positivity. Positive thinking makes your thinking flexible and opens up possibilities. The focus of thinking is contextual, not global, e.g., if you failed the job interview, you think in the context of one interview which did not go well, and you do not think that you will never do well in a job interview. Positive attitude involves cognitive restructuring where we deliberately engage in thinking in positive terms. We need to practice positive affirmations and focus on the positive side of any challenge. Engage in positive self-talk and use visualization strategies. Create a mental picture of what you want to achieve and how you want to see the things. This will then help you to engage in constructive and divergent thinking regarding ways to achieve this goal. Remember that we first create a mental picture; the physical or actual creation follows this mental creation, for instance, when you are doing a project, or planning a trip etc. Since we are hard-wired for negative thinking, it will require real effort and practice to change our default mode of thinking and engage in positive thinking. This will help to manage our stress and be effective in a situation. Expressing Gratitude: Gratitude refers to ‘The quality of being thankful or grateful’. It involves showing appreciation for something. Expressing gratitude also fosters positive attitude in the individual as it reduces our attention on the negative things in our life. If you think about our traditions and culture, our festivals and rituals offer occasions for showing our gratitude towards nature, other people, and our ancestors. We need to recognize and consciously focus on cultivating an attitude of gratitude. Gratitude not only makes you feel good by generating positive emotions, but also boosts our physical health and psychological well-being. It releases dopamine and serotonin which make us feel happy. Gratitude widens our thinking and perspective, and enhances resilience. One needs to practice gratitude, e.g., by writing gratitude letters, that is, letters that express your thankfulness to someone; gratitude visits where you visit people to express how grateful you are for their support; counting your blessings, i.e., focusing on the good things in your life; keeping a gratitude journal where you write down your positive experiences during the day etc. Coping Strategies: Coping can be described as deliberate efforts directed towards decreasing the negative effects of stressful situations. An adaptive coping style helps reduce stress whereas, maladaptive coping has negative impacts on physical and psychological health of the individual. Problem-focused coping tries to address the problem itself, that is, removing the cause of the stress. For instance, you switch on the fan if you are feeling too hot. However, emotion-focused coping deals with the emotions arising out of the stressful experience, e.g., you felt hurt by your friend’s behaviour and you tried to manage your hurt feeling by distracting yourself in some other activity. On the other hand, acceptanceoriented coping focuses on developing a sense of acceptance for the stressful situation where the things ar not under control of the individual, e.g., accepting the loss and damage of house and other properties due to the cyclone. Individual differences exist in the way individuals cope with stressful situations. This could be due to various factors such as personality of individuals, gender, tolerance level for stimulation, psychological hardiness, style of attribution, and learned helplessness (Beck et.al., 1983; Chesney et.al., 2006; Shenell et. al., 2015, & Tang et.al., 2015).

Strategies Focusing on Affective Processes Emotional Intelligence: Awareness of emotions in oneself and in others plays a crucial role in managing our stress. In addition to the thinking component of stress, we need to pay attention to the affective component of stress. Knowing about the emotions will help us in changing our thinking and behavior so that it results in adaptive behavior. Thus thinking and emotions need to be integrated which is called as Emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995). The five components of EI, according to Goleman, consist of self-awareness, empathy, self-regulation, motivation, and social skills. Emotional intelligence basically involves developing awareness about emotions in oneself and in others, and managing emotions. Positive Visualization: Positive visualization involves the use of imagination to visualize about a future outcome which we desire, but may not be able to achieve at the present moment. It can be called as mental exercise that helps one to reach the desired goal. It mostly has been used in the context of sports to enhance the performance and skill of the players. However, it can be used to enhance your performance in any aspect and field. We can utilize our brain’s ability to think about future and create a mental pathway to enhance our potential. As we have mentioned under positive attitude in the earlier section, everything is created twice – first you create a mental picture of your desired object, and then it is carried out in the reality, e.g., you plan out the project or your itinerary, and then you carry out it. Thus thoughts precede our actual behaviour. Hence if we can make it stronger at the thought level to begin with, it may transfer to the action level. There are two types of visualization such as (a) Outcome visualization, where you focus on the end goal; and (b) Process visualization, which focuses on the entire process that leads us to our desired goal. When we engage in both outcome and process visualization, it leads to effective results. Visualization is not just thinking and planning about a certain thing, but it requires vivid imagination involving all the senses. It includes the cognitive as well as affective processes related to the desired object/thing. When we repeatedly visualize something, paying attention to the minute details, and attaching all our senses with it, our brain gets the signal and gets motivated to engage in selective attention, goal-directed thinking and divergent thinking. Further, effective visualization requires us to be self-aware, knowing our strengths, beliefs, and values so that we know what we really want to achieve.

POSITIVE PARENTING Parents always try to give their best for the proper development of their children. They want their child to be happy, healthy, and be successful. However, along with having the intention to see our children flourish, it is also important to know the strategies and know-how of achieving that goal. Since each child is uniquely placed in the particular sociocultural context, parenting practices and methods need to take cognizance of these. However, there are common grounds and principles, which need to be ensured for parenting to be effective and help children reach their optimum development and thrive in their life. As stated by Patra (2022), “the larger goals of parenting are usually neglected in the competitive world where every parent wants their child to be the best amongst others, not the best of herself/himself. As a result, the child may gain wide knowledge, acquire various skills, achieve a lot, but may not develop selfawareness, self-connection and self-realization that will give a true purpose to one’s life.” Positive parenting refers to the use of positive psychology principles and techniques in child rearing practices. Thus instead of focusing on what is wrong in the child, it emphasizes what is right and good in the child. It also focuses on the parents themselves – being self-aware, being mindful, and learning to see the larger goal of parenting. Listening to the child, understanding the needs of the child and being a good role model will help the child feel loved and confident. According to Seay et al. (2014, p.207), positive parenting is the continual relationship of a parent(s) and a child or children that includes caring, teaching, leading, communicating, and providing for the needs of a child consistently and unconditionally. Thus it involves nurturing the child, and enabling the acquisition of skills, development of potentials, empowering and thriving of them. This requires a balanced approach to cater to their needs and at the same time making them learn a disciplined way of functioning and good value system. Two main issues in parenting involves how demanding and how responsive the parents are towards the child. This intersection between demandingness and responsiveness gives rise to four parenting styles namely, authoritarian, authoritative/democratic, permissive, and negligent/indifferent parenting (Baumrind, 1971; Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Authoritative parenting style has been found to be the most effective one as it brings in a positive approach to parenting practice and parent-child relationship. It reflects a democratic approach towards parenting and considers children as individuals in their own right. Such parents exude warmth along with firm discipline, they guide as well as provide instruction, set limits as well as provide freedom to their children. They are caring, supportive and convey the feeling of acceptance to the child. They value their children for who they are, not for what they lack or achieve. They also have open and clear communication with their children without judging. They exhibit mindfulness in their parenting behavior and interaction with the child.

What are the four types of parenting?

Meaning and Types of Aging From a biological perspective, aging is deterioration at the cellular and molecular level in the body. Scientific research in this framework has been able to discover ways that alleviate physical pain or increase longevity. The sociocultural factors also determine our mindset about aging. Have you noticed the undying efforts of the beauty commercials of soaps, hair dyes, body lotion, etc. that propagate that wrinkles, grey hair, loose skin are signs of being old? On the other hand, we also celebrate people like Fauja Singh, a British Sikh 101 year old man who finished a marathon. Both the examples are unrealistic portrayals of what aging looks like among the common people. A common social benchmark of aging is through policies of retirement and entitlements that people receive after a certain age (usually 60 or 65). In few cultures like Japan and India, people of older age are treated with respect and seen as a symbol of wisdom, while in individualistic societies aging is undesirable and sometimes viewed as a liability. Aging is viewed in terms of psychological changes when we refer to people as ‘being in a mood’, being slow, or being forgetful, or being emotionally needy. The psychological adage of “you are only as old as you feel” in fact has many positive implications of better health and wellbeing. Gana, Alaphilippe, and Bailly (2004) assessed 857 elderly retirees for youthful illusion (bias of feeling younger than one’s real age). It was reported that retirees who acknowledged of an perceived age deflation experienced better leisure time, higher self esteem, better perceived health, and less vulnerability to boredom than those who did not harbour this perceived youthful bias. Gerontological studies have classified age types that are dependent on factors others than biological aging. Primary aging is understood mostly as biological aging whereas secondary aging is a byproduct of ‘disuse, abuse, and disease’— factors that are under personal control of an individual. Erikson’s psychosocial theory provides a framework to understand conflicts faced during old age that focuses on self reflection of the life lived and the sense of fulfilment or regret felt. Those who feel accomplishment will feel a sense of integrity. Those who do not find success feel regretful and despaired (Malone, Liu, Vaillant, Rentz, & Waldinger, 2016). Successful Aging You must have come across interviews of celebrities who are sought to let out their secret of fine aging. We usually connote them as ‘aging gracefully’, ‘aging as wine’, etc. So how do we understand ‘success in aging’? The term ‘successful aging’ was made popular by Rowe and Kahn (1998) who defined it based on three factors: a) no disability or disease, b) high cognitive and physical abilities, c) meaningful socioemotional interaction with others. Importantly, they did not reduce aging to simply being a by-product of genetic factors but rather extended it as a combination of biology and lifestyle. Fig 15.6 provides a summary of various definitions rendered to the meaning of successful aging. These definitions at the same time point out to several features that help identify successful aging.

Key concepts of ageing

Successful ageing